Sinai Peninsula: satellite photo
description: The Sinai Peninsula is nowadays part of the modern State of Egypt. The Gulf of Suez, on the left, divides it from the rest of Egypt. The Gulf of Aqaba, on the right, separates it from Saudi Arabia. The southernmost tip of Israel is at the northernmost tip of the Gulf of Aqaba, there sits the modern city of Eilat. These two gulfs are fingers of the Red Sea, to the south, which is, in turn, an extension of the Indian Ocean. The Mediterranean Sea is visible in the background and so is the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), it is located to the east of the Central Hill, between the modern countries of Israel and Jordan. Further Reading '>Dead Sea at the top right corner.

Caesarea and the Coastal Plain
description: This aerial view of the ancient harbor of Caesarea Maritima, looking from the Mediterranean sea toward the northeast, gives a feel of what the Coastal Plains are like. They are relatively flat and fertile from the rain runoff. The ports and cities that dot the coastline thrived on maritime trade and made control of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The western part of the Land of Israel/Palestine that sits between the Mediterranean Sea and the Central Hill. Further Reading '>Coastal Plain strategically important. The city in this picture was built by <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish king of Edumaean descent who ruled Palestine under Roman authority from 40-4 BCE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Herod the Great in the 1st century BCE. Protruding from the coast into the sea is an artificial wave breaker that Herod's engineers devised to allow the ships to set anchor. On the coast to the right are the ancient ruins of the city of Caesarea.
date: -0037-01-01/1265-01-01

Land of Israel/Palestine: satellite photo
description: This satellite photograph of Israel/Palestine shows the main geographical markers that define the borders of the country. The two bodies of water are the Sea of <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee (in the north) and the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), it is located to the east of the Central Hill, between the modern countries of Israel and Jordan. Further Reading '>Dead Sea (in the south). Flowing between them from north to south is the <span class="tooltip" title=' A river that runs south from its source on the slopes of Mt. Hermon to the Sea of Galilee and south again from the Sea of Galilee through the Jordan River Valley to the Dead Sea. Further Reading '>Jordan River, which flows through the <span class="tooltip" title=' Divides modern Israel from Jordan between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea (to the east of the Central Hill). The Jordan River flows through it and it has often been a natural boundary throughout history. Further Reading '>Jordan Valley (part of the Syrian-African Rift, also known as The Great Rift Valley). Between the Jordan Valley and the Mediterranean Sea is the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill region, and between the Central Hill and the Mediterranean Sea to the west is the <span class="tooltip" title=' The western part of the Land of Israel/Palestine that sits between the Mediterranean Sea and the Central Hill. Further Reading '>Coastal Plain. In the botto…

Caesarea: The Roman theater
description: This aerial view of the area just south of the harbor at Caesarea Maritima shows the Roman theater (approx. 4,000 seats in its final stage) and the remains of the Promontory Palace (in the lower left corner of the photo), both built in the 1st century BCE. On the right are some of the modern buildings of the town of Sdot Yam.
date: -0037-01-01/1265-01-01

Coastal Plain
description: This view of the fields below the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill shows the lush nature of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The western part of the Land of Israel/Palestine that sits between the Mediterranean Sea and the Central Hill. Further Reading '>Coastal Plain between Tel Aviv and Caesarea Maritima. The blue line in the background is the Mediterranean.

Jerusalem: the Old City
description: A view of <span class="tooltip" title=' A relatively low hill within the Old City of Jerusalem, on its western side. Further Reading '>Mt. Zion (in the Old City of Jerusalem) from the <span class="tooltip" title=' One of the valleys that borders Jerusalem on the east and south sides. Further Reading '>Hinnom Valley. The Church of St. Peter in Gallicantu is visible on the upper slope and the Dormition Abbey is visible on the ridge at the upper right corner of the photo. The photograph represents architecture typical of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill where houses need to accommodate the terraces and rising nature of the slopes.

Northern Central Hill
description: These hills are part of the northern <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill of Palestine. This view shows the valley of Liban, which is in the region that was Samaria in antiquity, and the modern village of Sawiya (on the far hill). The modern road follows the ancient route to Shechem. The valley in the center of the photograph creates an open flat space between the mountains, which is naturally used for agriculture (note that the village is located on the ridge of the hill, not to take away from the valuable and rare agricultural land).

Tel Beit Shemesh
description: This view of Tel Beit Shemesh (the archaeological ruins in the foreground), an <span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelite town during the Iron Age, gives a feel of the transition from the <span class="tooltip" title=' The western part of the Land of Israel/Palestine that sits between the Mediterranean Sea and the Central Hill. Further Reading '>Coastal plain to the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill. The peaks of the Central Hill, running from north to south (left to right), are seen rising in background. This region between the hills and the <span class="tooltip" title=' The western region of the Land of Israel/Palestine that sits between the Mediterranean Sea and the Central Hill. Further Reading '>seashore plains (which are not seen the photograph) is called the <span class="tooltip" title=' The foothill region between the Seashore Plains and the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Shephelah.
date: -1200-01-01/-0700-01-01

Sinai Desert
description: This photo of the northern <span class="tooltip" title=' A relatively large desert south of the Land of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Sinai Desert shows the geography, topography, and sparse vegetation that is characteristic of southern Israel/Palestine and the area to its south. Much of its topography is created by sand dunes that are created around rocky hills and mountains (as can be seen in at the top of the photograph).

Central Hill: typical landscape
description: This landscape is typical of many parts of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill. To the right one can trace the valley that descends from the peak of the central hills and runs west toward the Mediterranean. The steep slopes on the left are man-made terracing (known in Arabic as terrasa, steps) necessary for agriculture; the rainfall on the western slope of the Central Hill provides water.

Ancient Mediterranean: relief map
description: Israel is located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, between the Sinai Peninsula, the Arabian Peninsula, and Syria. Other important regions include Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, which make up the northern edge of the Mediterranean, and the inland region of <span class="tooltip" title=' Literally "between the rivers," it is the region that surrounds the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, in modern-day Iraq and Iran. It is the "cradle of civilization," so-called because the earliest cities and evidence of written language come from this area. Further Reading '>Mesopotamia, which is bounded by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Mesopotamia and the eastern shore of the Mediterranean constitute the 'Fertile Crescent' around the arid desert that makes up most of the Arabian Peninsula. To the south of the Mediterranean (the bottom left of the picture) is the region of North Africa, the territory of modern countries such as Egypt, Libya, Tunisia and Algeria.

Sinai Peninsula: map
description: The <span class="tooltip" title=' A relatively large desert south of the Land of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Sinai Desert is bounded by the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba. The region names on this map (<span class="tooltip" title=' The region in which the Moabites lived in the Iron Age. It is located on the eastern side of the Jordan River. Ammon was to its north and Edom was to its south. Further Reading '>Moab, <span class="tooltip" title=' Edom is the region where the tribe of the Edomites lived in the Iron Age. It is located in southern Jordan, east of the Dead Sea and the Negev Desert. In the Persian and Hellenistic periods some of the Edomites appear to have migrated west into the Negev Desert and became the Idumaeans. Further Reading '>Edom, Midian, Goshen, and Egypt), as well as the names and locations of the cities, are those of the Biblical period (Bronze and Iron Ages). The map shows the main transportation routes (in black lines) of the ancient Near East, especially the <span class="tooltip" title=' "Way of the Sea" in Latin, it was the main "highway" that ran through the Land of Israel/Palestine on the coast. Further Reading '>Via Maris, starting in Egypt and going north along the Mediterranean coast, and the so-called 'Kings Highway' that begins at the northern tip of the Gulf of Aqaba and runs north along the Syrian-African Rift. The red lines plot conjectured routes from the stories of the <span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelite <span class="tooltip" title=' The second book of the Bible and the name for the Israelite migration from Egypt in the days of Moses. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Exodus from Egypt.

Jerusalem: aerial view
description: This aerial photograph of Jerusalem, looking north, shows the hilly character of the area. The Old City, including the <span class="tooltip" title=' "Kubbat ash-Sakhra" in Arabic, this is the golden-domed shrine that is located on the Temple Mount (or Haram esh-Sharif) in Jerusalem. It was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE. Further Reading '>Dome of the Rock and the <span class="tooltip" title=' The only mosque on the Temple Mount/Haram esh-Sharif. It sits on the southwest corner of the platform and has a gray dome. Further Reading '>Al-Aqsa Mosque, can be seen in the center of the picture, and the skyscrapers of the new city are in the background. The shadow to the right of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Also known as the Haram esh-Sharif ("Noble Sanctuary" in Arabic), it is the site where the Jewish Temple stood and where the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque now stand. The massive Temple Mount compound that exists today was built by Herod the Great in the late 1st century BCE and early 1st century CE. Further Reading '>Temple Mount covers the western slope of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The valley that runs southeast from Jerusalem down to the Dead Sea. Further Reading '>Kidron Valley (biblical Valley of Jehoshaphat). The <span class="tooltip" title=' One of the valleys that borders Jerusalem on the east and south sides. Further Reading '>Hinnom Valley runs perpendicular, then curves around the southwestern edge of the Old City. The shadow to the left of the Temple Mount is the Tyropoean Valley ("Valley of the Cheesemakers"). The <span class="tooltip" title=' Built by David ca. 970 BCE on the site of the earlier Jebusite city Jebus; it was also called Jerusalem. It physically sits on the slope of hill south of the modern Old City and Temple Mount, near the Gihon Spring. Further Reading '>City of David sits between these two shadows, below the southern wall of the Temple Mount. At the top right of the photo you can see the water tower o…

Upper Galilee: Huleh Valley
description: Northern <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee was known as 'Upper Galilee' in antiquity because its elevation was higher than Southern Galilee. Today its central portion, called the <span class="tooltip" title=' A valley in Upper Galilee, to the west of the Golan Heights. Today it is a rich agricultural valley surrounded by steep heights to the east and west; however, in antiquity it was a swamp. Further Reading '>Huleh Valley (visible in the foreground of this picture), is a rich agricultural valley surrounded by steep heights to the east and west; however, in antiquity this valley was a swamp. In the background is Mt. Hermon, the northernmost and highest point in modern Israel/Palestine, rising to over 7,200 feet.

Judaean Desert
description: The <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the administrative region around Jerusalem in the late Second Temple and Roman periods. Further Reading '>Judaean Desert is located east of Jerusalem (which is in the distance, at the top of the hill) and is formed by the topography of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill descending toward the <span class="tooltip" title=' Divides modern Israel from Jordan between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea (to the east of the Central Hill). The Jordan River flows through it and it has often been a natural boundary throughout history. Further Reading '>Jordan Valley and the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), it is located to the east of the Central Hill, between the modern countries of Israel and Jordan. Further Reading '>Dead Sea (the lowest place on earth). It is very dry, as a result of being in the rain shadow that is created by the prevailing weather patterns that arrive at the Central Hill from the west. In addition, the soil is comprised mostly of Senonian limestone that erodes easily and does not retain moisture well.

Jericho
description: The city of Jericho sits in the <span class="tooltip" title=' A river that runs south from its source on the slopes of Mt. Hermon to the Sea of Galilee and south again from the Sea of Galilee through the Jordan River Valley to the Dead Sea. Further Reading '>Jordan River Valley, in the <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the administrative region around Jerusalem in the late Second Temple and Roman periods. Further Reading '>Judaean Desert. It has been continuously inhabited since at least 9,000 BCE. Though the Jordan River is nearby (ca. 5 miles away), the city of Jericho gets its water from a prolific local spring. In the foreground is the <span class="tooltip" title=' Also called "Maccabean," the two words refer to the dynasty of independent Jewish rulers in the 2nd-1st centuries BCE (167-63 BCE) who came to power after the Maccabaean Revolt. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Hasmonaean fortress of Doq. In the background, in the upper right of the photo, is the northern edge of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), it is located to the east of the Central Hill, between the modern countries of Israel and Jordan. Further Reading '>Dead Sea.
date: -0167-01-01/-0037-01-01

Dead Sea
description: The <span class="tooltip" title=' The lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), it is located to the east of the Central Hill, between the modern countries of Israel and Jordan. Further Reading '>Dead Sea, which is the lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), received its name from the fact that its high salinity precludes almost anything from living in it. Water flows into it from various sources, including the <span class="tooltip" title=' A river that runs south from its source on the slopes of Mt. Hermon to the Sea of Galilee and south again from the Sea of Galilee through the Jordan River Valley to the Dead Sea. Further Reading '>Jordan River, and cannot flow out. As a result the water absorbs many minerals from the ground before it evaporates, leaving salt and mineral formations behind.

Jerusalem: aerial view
description: This aerial view towards Jerusalem from the east shows just how arid the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill becomes as one passes the watershed line from west to east into the rain shadow on its east side. This is the beginning of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the administrative region around Jerusalem in the late Second Temple and Roman periods. Further Reading '>Judaean Desert.

Tel Be'er Sheva
description: This aerial view of Tel Be'er Sheva shows the 8th century BCE outline of the <span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelite city and gives an idea of the aridity of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The arid region south of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Negev desert. The city was built in the 10th-9th century BCE by first constructing a platform surrounded by a moat. The city was then built on top of this rampart and a wall was built around the city. It was destroyed in the 8th century BCE, probably as a result of the campaign of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Assyria was a major Mesopotamian empire which ruled over Palestine in the 8th-7th centuries BCE. Further Reading '>Assyrian king <span class="tooltip" title=' The King of Assyria from 704-681 BCE. Further Reading '>Sennacherib in 701 BCE. Note that, rather than the Hippodamian plan of Graeco-Roman cities (i.e., perpendicular streets), this Israelite city had a circular street plan.
date: -1000-01-01/-0700-01-01

Yiftael: Early Bronze Age I Architecture
description: The ancient site of Yiftael, in Lower <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee, has one of the best preserved Chalcolithic and <span class="tooltip" title=" 3,200-2,350 BCE ">Early Bronze Age I (3150-2850) villages in Galilee. This photograph shows the foundations of the round or elliptical houses that comprised a room that was ca. 15 feet in diameter. The small circle of stones near the center of each house constituted a stone base for a wooden pillar. Nobody knows what the flat stones with the two holes in them were used for.
date: -3150-01-01/-2850-01-01

Jerusalem: Mount of Olives
description: This view, looking east toward the <span class="tooltip" title=' A hill immediately east of the Old City of Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. The Jehoshaphat Valley runs between the Mount of Olives and Jerusalem. Further Reading '>Mt. of Olives, shows the modern Seven Arches Hotel on its summit and the Jewish cemetery that has been built on its western slope. At the base of the Mt. of Olives is the steep <span class="tooltip" title=' The valley that runs southeast from Jerusalem down to the Dead Sea. Further Reading '>Kidron Valley, which cuts dramatically between the <span class="tooltip" title=' Also known as the Haram esh-Sharif ("Noble Sanctuary" in Arabic), it is the site where the Jewish Temple stood and where the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque now stand. The massive Temple Mount compound that exists today was built by Herod the Great in the late 1st century BCE and early 1st century CE. Further Reading '>Temple Mount (and the Old City to the west) and the Mt. of Olives (to the east).

Jordan River
description: This is a view of the <span class="tooltip" title=' A river that runs south from its source on the slopes of Mt. Hermon to the Sea of Galilee and south again from the Sea of Galilee through the Jordan River Valley to the Dead Sea. Further Reading '>Jordan River, south of the Sea of <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee. The River flows from north to south on the eastern edge of Israel/Palestine. It is neither wide nor deep, and so provides no defensive advantages. The River flows through the <span class="tooltip" title=' Divides modern Israel from Jordan between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea (to the east of the Central Hill). The Jordan River flows through it and it has often been a natural boundary throughout history. Further Reading '>Jordan valley, with modern Israel/West Bank to the west and Jordan to the east. The Jordan Valley is part of the Syrian African Rift, a geological that characterizes the landscape from northern Syria all the way south to Mozambique, southeast Africa.

Tel Arad: Early Bronze Age tower
description: This photograph of one of the many the <span class="tooltip" title=" 3,200-2,350 BCE ">Early Bronze Age towers at Arad reveals defenses typical of the period. The towers, 10-12 feet in diameter and found at 65-80 foot intervals, projected out from the wall, thus exposing any attacker attempting to scale the wall to the projectiles of the defenders.
date: -3300-01-01/-2000-01-01

Jordan River
description: This is a view of the Upper <span class="tooltip" title=' A river that runs south from its source on the slopes of Mt. Hermon to the Sea of Galilee and south again from the Sea of Galilee through the Jordan River Valley to the Dead Sea. Further Reading '>Jordan River, North of the Sea of <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee. The main source of the Jordan River is located near Banias (Caesarea Philippi), 1,312 feet above sea level. It drops down into the <span class="tooltip" title=' A valley in Upper Galilee, to the west of the Golan Heights. Today it is a rich agricultural valley surrounded by steep heights to the east and west; however, in antiquity it was a swamp. Further Reading '>Huleh Valley and then down to the <span class="tooltip" title=' A lake located in Lower Galilee, in the north of the Land of Israel/Palestine. The Jordan River feeds it and flows out of it. Further Reading '>Sea of Galilee, and from there down to the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), it is located to the east of the Central Hill, between the modern countries of Israel and Jordan. Further Reading '>Dead Sea (1,300 feet below sea level). This view of the upper Jordan River (above the Sea of Galilee) shows both the size of the river and the turbulence of the water, as well as the more mountainous terrain of this part of the country.

Lower Galilee
description: This photograph shows the <span class="tooltip" title=' A wide open plateau that runs east/west from the Mediterranean Sea to the Sea of Galilee, just north of the Central Hill. The city of Megiddo is located in it. Further Reading '>Jezreel Valley, which separates the central hills from Lower <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee. The <span class="tooltip" title=' "Way of the Sea" in Latin, it was the main "highway" that ran through the Land of Israel/Palestine on the coast. Further Reading '>Via Maris (the road that runs north from Egypt along the coast) cuts through the Jezreel Valley on its way to <span class="tooltip" title=' The capital of modern Syria, just to the north of the Golan Heights. It was also the capital of the Umayyad caliphate (661-750 CE). Further Reading '>Damascus. Southern Galilee, known as 'Lower Galilee' in antiquity because it was of lower elevation than the northern half of Galilee, is the most fertile part of Israel/Palestine, good for both farming and shepherding. The mountain in the background is Mt. Tabor.

Golan Heights: The Yarmuk River
description: The Yarmuk River, which is barely visible in the bottom right corner of this picture, marks the southern boundary of the <span class="tooltip" title=' A high plateau that rises east and northeast of the Sea of Galilee. Modern Israel took this region from Syria in the war of 1967 (also known as the Six Day War), and continues to hold it to this day. Further Reading '>Golan Heights, separating it from the region that is the modern country of Jordan. It flows west out of the Golan Heights and into the <span class="tooltip" title=' A river that runs south from its source on the slopes of Mt. Hermon to the Sea of Galilee and south again from the Sea of Galilee through the Jordan River Valley to the Dead Sea. Further Reading '>Jordan River just south of the Sea of <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee.

Upper Galilee: Tanur waterfall
description: This photograph of a waterfall was taken near the modern town of Metulla, at the northernmost reaches of the <span class="tooltip" title=' A valley in Upper Galilee, to the west of the Golan Heights. Today it is a rich agricultural valley surrounded by steep heights to the east and west; however, in antiquity it was a swamp. Further Reading '>Huleh Valley (where the Huleh begins to climb up toward Mt. Hermon and the Anti-Lebanon mountain range). It illustrates the lush, watery nature of Upper <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee in the winter months - in excess of 36 inches per winter.

A Near Eastern Tel
description: A tel (sometimes spelled 'tell'), shown in this picture, is a mound holding ancient ruins. Most towns and cities in ancient times were built on the top of a hill because this location offered a defensive advantage. When all or part of a city was destroyed, builders usually found it easier to fill in and level the city they destroyed (rather than remove the debris), resulting in an increasingly higher mound over hundreds or thousands of years. Archaeologists can excavate through the different layers of destroyed cities that make the tel and gain much information about the specific site and the different periods of history in general.

Early Bronze Age Pottery
description: This photograph shows some common every-day pottery from the <span class="tooltip" title=" 3,200-2,350 BCE ">Early Bronze Age (3,300-2,000 BCE). Because archaeologists find more pottery sherds than anything else in an excavation, it is the main source of information for dating the architecture of an ancient building. It works like this: the shapes of ceramic vessels are known to have changed over time and to have been different in different regions. As a result, the shape and fabric (i.e., clay used) of a vessel fragment can tell an archaeologist when it was made and, by extension, when the soil in which it was found was deposited. The tower-shaped vessel in this photograph is an incense burner. Coal would be put inside and it would heat the incense that was put on top, spreading a pleasant aroma.
date: -3300-01-01/-2000-01-01

Middle Bronze Age I Pottery
description: This photograph shows some of the common pottery from the <span class="tooltip" title=" 2,200-1,750 BCE ">Middle Bronze I period (2,000-1,900 BCE). The basin-shaped vessel in the foreground center with the four pinched corners is an ancient lamp. Oil would be put inside and wicks would run through the pinched corners.
date: -2000-01-01/-1900-01-01

Negev Desert: Middle Bronze Age I Architecture - detail
description: This photograph shows a reconstruction of how the roof was probably built on a Round House. Wooden beams from the trunk of a nearby tamarisk tree were laid like spokes radiating from the central pillar to the outer wall, and broad, flat stones were laid on top and then covered with plaster. Archaeologists found numerous flat stones like these and patches of plaster in the debris of every house that they excavated. Charred remains of wooden beams were found lying in the radiating position in several houses.
date: -2000-01-01/-1900-01-01

Golan Heights: Nahal Daliyot
description: This view, looking from the ancient city of Gamla in the <span class="tooltip" title=' A high plateau that rises east and northeast of the Sea of Galilee. Modern Israel took this region from Syria in the war of 1967 (also known as the Six Day War), and continues to hold it to this day. Further Reading '>Golan Heights southwest toward the Sea of <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee (visible in the background) illustrates just how quickly the high plateau that makes up the Golan Heights drops down to the <span class="tooltip" title=' A lake located in Lower Galilee, in the north of the Land of Israel/Palestine. The Jordan River feeds it and flows out of it. Further Reading '>Sea of Galilee. The deep ravine in the picture is a <span class="tooltip" title=' A seasonal riverbed (i.e., a dry riverbed in which water runs only during rainstorms). They are widespread in the dry regions of the Middle East. Further Reading '>wadi, or seasonal riverbed.

Tiberias: aerial view
description: This aerial photograph, looking north, shows the modern city of Tiberias. Tiberias was founded by <span class="tooltip" title=' The son of Herod the Great that was given the northern regions of Galilee and Peraea when his father died in 4 BCE. He ruled them until 39 CE. He also built the city of Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee and is the Herod that is mentioned in the New Testament gospels Further Reading '>Herod Antipas in 20 CE and has been continuously occupied since then. It is located on the west shore of the Sea of <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee. At the top of the picture one sees the modern city of Tiberias which sits on the ruins of the Arab town. At the bottom of the picture is the Tiberian neighborhood known as Hammat Tiberias, which developed around the mineral springs that are located there. Between Hammat Tiberias and the modern city one can see an open, green space. That was the location of the Roman and then <span class="tooltip" title=' The name we use today for the Roman Empire in its Christian phase, which is to say, from Constantine until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. In Palestine, Byzantine rule ended with the Islamic conquest (i.e., it lasted from 332-636 CE in our region). Further Reading '>Byzantine cities. In 1033 CE an earthquake destroyed the Byzantine city and the Arab rulers rebuilt it to the north. The hills of Upper Galilee are visible at the top of the photo.

Northern Negev Desert: Female Figurine
description: This 12 inch-high figurine depicts a female figure seated on a stool and holding a milk churn on her head. The milk churn is a miniature replica of ceramic churns known from this period. It was found together with several other apparently ritual objects, and that information, combined with the accentuated sexual organs, has led the excavator of the site to suggest that the figure may represent a form of <span class="tooltip" title=' A Canaanite goddess of love and procreation. She had many correlations with the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar and the Phoenician goddess Astarte. Further Reading '>Ashtaroth as the goddess of flocks and milk. Note the decorative red lines that adorn the figure, which are a common feature in many vessels from this age.
date: -4000-01-01/-3100-01-01

Nahal Mishmar: Chalcolithic bronze hoard
description: These copper objects are part of one of the most famous hoards of objects ever found in the region. The hoard consisted of over 400 items that were found hidden in a cave high in a cliff overlooking Nahal Mishmar, a seasonal river bed near En Gedi, in the <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the administrative region around Jerusalem in the late Second Temple and Roman periods. Further Reading '>Judaean Desert. The fine workmanship and uncommon use of the metal objects suggests that they had been taken from a cultic center, although their exact significance and use is unknown. The pottery found with them dated to 3,500 BCE, and some have suggested that the objects came from a Chalcolithic temple that was found 6 miles away. These objects were made using the 'lost wax' process, in which wax was carved into the shape of the artifact, encased in clay, and fired, causing the wax to melt and the clay to harden. Molten copper was then poured into the clay form.
date: -3500-01-01

Negev Desert: Middle Bronze Age I Architecture
description: This photograph shows a simple one-room 'round house' in the <span class="tooltip" title=' The arid region south of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Negev Desert that was built around 2,000 BCE. The pillar in the middle of the room supported the roof. It seems that they were used only for sleeping quarters: all cooking ovens and other small installations were found outside the rooms. It is possible, perhaps even likely, that these houses were only used on a seasonal basis by pastoral groups: no cultivated grains were found in soil samples and no burials were found.
date: -2000-01-01/-1900-01-01

Rashid: The Rosetta Stone
description: The Rosetta Stone contains an inscription written in three scripts (Egyptian <span class="tooltip" title=' An ancient pictorial writing system that was used by the Egyptians. Further Reading '>hieroglyphs, Demotic, and Greek) and allowed the decipherment of hieroglyphs and Demotic. It was found by Napoleon's army in 1799 in the city of Rashid (Rosetta) in the Nile Delta, but the inscription itself is from Memphis (ca. 120 miles southeast, at the southern tip of the Nile delta) and dates to 196 BCE. At the time of its discovery the ancient Egyptian languages were indecipherable, but Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion were able to make connections between them and the Greek text (which could be translated) after assuming that the cartouches in the Hieroglyphic text preserved the proper names seen in the Greek inscription (Ptolemy and Cleopatra).
date: -0196-01-01

Tale of Sinuhe
description: The story of Sinuhe has been preserved on numerous papyri and ostraca. This manuscript is written in an Egyptian script called <span class="tooltip" title=' A cursive script that evolved from hieroglyphics (and was easier and quicker to write than the cumbersome symbols of hieroglyphics). Further Reading '>hieratic, which is closely related to Egyptian <span class="tooltip" title=' An ancient pictorial writing system that was used by the Egyptians. Further Reading '>hieroglyphs, and dates to the Egyptian 12th Dynasty (ca. 1991-1785 BCE). It tells the story of an Egyptian official who lived in voluntary exile in southern Syria/northern <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the Land of Israel/Palestine prior to period of the Monarchy (ca. 1000 BCE). The people who lived in the land prior to the Israelites are called "Canaanites" in the Hebrew Bible and other sources. Further Reading '>Canaan. The details of the story are valuable for the light that they shed on life in southern Syria during the early <span class="tooltip" title=" 2,200-1,750 BCE ">Middle Bronze I (2000-1800 BCE). The descriptions mention tents and encampments but not towns and cities, suggesting that nomadism persisted.
date: -2000-01-01/-1800-01-01

Female Figurines from the Late Bronze Age
description: These three figurines are characteristic of Late Bronze Age molded plaque figurines. All tend to be nude and standing in frontal position. They probably represented the <span class="tooltip" title=' The people who lived in the Land prior to the Israelites (i.e., prior to ca. 1000 BCE). They continued to live in the Seashore Plains for centuries after the rise of David. Further Reading '>Canaanite goddess <span class="tooltip" title=' A Canaanite goddess of love and procreation. She had many correlations with the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar and the Phoenician goddess Astarte. Further Reading '>Ashtaroth in her role as goddess of love and procreation. Figurines such as these were made in molds and are often found in domestic quarters.
date: -1600-01-01/-1200-01-01

Tel Dan: Middle Bronze Age gate
description: This photo shows the fully preserved arched gateway at Tel Dan, which was made of mud bricks and is the first such structure found intact in Israel. In the <span class="tooltip" title=" 3,200-2,350 BCE ">Early Bronze Age, sun-dried mud bricks began to replace the stones that had been used for city walls and towers, perhaps because they could be erected more quickly and raised higher than boulder walls.
date: -1800-01-01/-1700-01-01

Tel Megiddo: Cuneiform tablets
description: The earliest writing preserved from Israel/Palestine are in the form of <span class="tooltip" title=' A wedge-shaped non-alphabetic script that was used for the ancient languages of Akkadian, Sumerian, Babylonian, and Ugaritic. These languages were written on clay tablets, not paper, and the symbols were pressed into the clay with a stylus. Further Reading '>cuneiform on clay tablets like this one. The cuneiform script and the languages that were written in it (like <span class="tooltip" title=' Akkadian is a cuneiform (wedge-shaped) language that was used primarily in Mesopotamia between ca. 2,500 and 700 BCE. Further Reading '>Akkadian) were developed in <span class="tooltip" title=' Literally "between the rivers," it is the region that surrounds the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, in modern-day Iraq and Iran. It is the "cradle of civilization," so-called because the earliest cities and evidence of written language come from this area. Further Reading '>Mesopotamia. This tablet fragment preserves part of the text of the Epic of Gilgamesh, a Mesopotamian story that includes an account of the origin of the world, a worldwide flood, and a figure much like Noah from the biblical book of Genesis.
date: -1500-01-01/-1300-01-01

Jericho: Neolithic Tower
description: This photograph shows the earliest fortification structure thus far discovered anywhere in the world. It is a circular tower that was probably built around 7,000 BCE and was connected to a massive stone wall. The position of the tower would have given those on top of it a commanding view of the broad <span class="tooltip" title=' A river that runs south from its source on the slopes of Mt. Hermon to the Sea of Galilee and south again from the Sea of Galilee through the Jordan River Valley to the Dead Sea. Further Reading '>Jordan River Valley. The top of the tower was accessed by 22 steps that lead from the doorway, visible at the bottom, to the place on top of the tower that is covered by the modern grate (also visible).
date: -7000-01-01

Southern Mesopotamia: Cuneiform tablets
description: The earliest writing was not on paper, but on clay tablets. Instead of a pen, scribes used an instrument called a stylus that was triangular in cross-section. They would press the tip of the stylus into the clay to make the triangular portions of the symbol and drag the edge of the stylus across the clay to make the lines. The size and shape of clay tablets varied with the type of text being recorded and with changing scribal preferences. When a scribe finished with one side of the tablet he would turn the bottom edge up and write on the back. After he was done writing, the tablet would usually be set in the sun to dry (though tablets were sometimes fired in a kiln).
date: -4000-01-01/-3000-01-01

Near Nahal Tabor: Female Figurine
description: This 6 inch-high clay figurine dates to the Late Neolithic Age (6,000-5,000 BCE), which is the same time that the earliest baked clay vessels were being made. It is the only complete one of its kind from this period, although fragments have been found elsewhere. Its interpretation is contested - for instance, some scholars think that the figurine is nude; others that the deep lines around the shoulders indicate some kind of garment. Its significance and use are also debated - was it used for religious purposes (and if so, how?), or was it nothing more than a child's toy? Figurines, often depicting naked females, are well known from later periods and have often been understood to be associated with fertility rites, whether for human or agricultural fertility.
date: -6000-01-01/-5000-01-01

Luxor: Merneptah Stele - overview
description: The <span class="tooltip" title=' The Egyptian pharaoh who gave us the first extra-biblical reference to Israel (ca. 1207 BCE). Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Merneptah Stele, pictured here, is an inscription written in <span class="tooltip" title=' An ancient pictorial writing system that was used by the Egyptians. Further Reading '>hieroglyphs on granite during the reign of the Egyptian king Merneptah (1213-1203 BCE). It contains the earliest preserved inscriptional evidence of the name Israel (and perhaps therefore the <span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelites). In the inscription 'Israel' it is mentioned together with three other defeated states in <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the Land of Israel/Palestine prior to period of the Monarchy (ca. 1000 BCE). The people who lived in the land prior to the Israelites are called "Canaanites" in the Hebrew Bible and other sources. Further Reading '>Canaan (Gezer, Yanoam, and <span class="tooltip" title=' A coastal city in the southern part of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Ashkelon). The hieroglyphic symbols used designate a foreign people group, as opposed to a city (as the words for Ashkelon, Gezer, and Yano'am are marked), suggesting that in the late 12th century Israel had achieved a specific identity as a people but had not yet developed into a fixed political entity or state.
date: -1213-01-01/-1203-01-01

Tel Hazor: the Upper City
description: The area with pillars in this photo shows the ancient ruins of a storehouse that dates to the 9th century BCE. The large rooms in the foreground date to the time of <span class="tooltip" title=' The King of the northern kingdom of Israel from ca. 786-753 BCE. Further Reading '>Jeroboam II (793-753 BCE). In the background is the snow-covered peak of Mt. Hermon.
date: -1900-01-01/-0732-01-01

Tel Megiddo: the water tunnel
description: This photograph shows an underground tunnel that was part of Megiddo's water system, which was built in the 9th century BCE. Water was a precious defensive commodity - if a city had any hope of surviving a siege, they had to make sure that their inhabitants had water to drink and that their enemies did not. In order to reach the spring that fed the city from within the city walls, ancient engineers cut a 75-foot shaft equipped with a spiral staircase and then a 210-foot long horizontal underground tunnel.
date: -1000-01-01/-0332-01-01

Saqqara: Execration Text
description: This figurine, modeled in unbaked clay, has the form of a kneeling prisoner with his arms tied behind him at the elbows. The writing is <span class="tooltip" title=' A cursive script that evolved from hieroglyphics (and was easier and quicker to write than the cumbersome symbols of hieroglyphics). Further Reading '>hieratic, a script much like Egyptian hieroglyphics; the inscription contains the names of enemies. After it was inscribed it was deliberately smashed in order to curse the enemies listed in the text (probably people who posed a threat to some important Egyptian or to Egypt in general).
date: -1878-01-01/-1842-01-01

Uruk: Sumerian King List
description: The Sumerian King List is the name given to a traditional canon of the early kings of <span class="tooltip" title=' Literally "between the rivers," it is the region that surrounds the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, in modern-day Iraq and Iran. It is the "cradle of civilization," so-called because the earliest cities and evidence of written language come from this area. Further Reading '>Mesopotamia, thought by some scholars to have been composed in the time of Utu-hegal, a king of the city of Uruk who restored Sumerian independence after the invasion of the Gutians near the end of the third millennium BCE. As with the pre-flood patriarchs in Genesis 5, the kings listed in the pre-flood section of this text lived for extraordinarily long reigns (the longest being 64,800 years).
date: -3000-01-01/-2000-01-01

Tel Hazor: aerial view
description: Hazor, an ancient city and tel that sits at the southern end of the <span class="tooltip" title=' A valley in Upper Galilee, to the west of the Golan Heights. Today it is a rich agricultural valley surrounded by steep heights to the east and west; however, in antiquity it was a swamp. Further Reading '>Huleh Valley in eastern upper <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee, was one of the largest and most important cities in the region from ca 1,900 BCE until 732 BCE when it was destroyed by the <span class="tooltip" title=' Assyria was a major Mesopotamian empire which ruled over Palestine in the 8th-7th centuries BCE. Further Reading '>Assyrian king <span class="tooltip" title=' The King of Assyria from 745-727 BCE. He was responsible for the conquest and destruction of the northern kingdom of Israel in 732 BCE. Further Reading '>Tiglath-Pileser III. Intensive archaeological excavation on the tel and at its base revealed a great deal about the early history of the region.
date: -1900-01-01/-0732-01-01