Crusader holdings after the Battle of Hattin: Map
This map of the eastern Mediterranean shows the extent of the now-small-sized Crusader state that was preserved after the Battle of Hattin (in 1187 CE). It was a small strip stretching from Acre to Sidon with the city of Tyre (represented by the yellow star) at its center. The island at the top right is Cyprus, itself a Crusader stronghold.
The Mediterranean and Middle East in the 13th century CE: Map
This map represents the military movements in the Mediterranean and the Middle East in the 13th century CE, including the 7th Crusade of King Louis IX in 1248 CE from France to Egypt (red) and the move of the Mongols in the 13th century, emanating from their homeland of Mongolia (yellow oval) into Asia, Central Europe, and eventually Syria and Palestine.
This photograph shows the Horns of Hattin (or Hill of Hattin), which is the large, flat hilltop in the top center of the photograph. It is an extinct volcano that, from the ground, looks like two horns. Recent archaeological research has revealed a Roman village. We know from historical sources that the Crusaders were defeated by Saladin here on July 4, 1187 CE. In the background are the hills of eastern Galilee; just above are the city of Tiberias and the Sea of Galilee.
This map shows the battle of Ein Galud (September 1260) between the Mamluks (yellow) and the Mongols (red arrow). The Mamluks came from Egypt and the Mongols from Syria. They met at the great plains near a spring called Ein Galud (green star) in a valley at the northern end of the Central Hill.
The raking light in this aerial view of the Old City of Jerusalem, looking east toward the Judaean Desert, clearly shows the Old City walls, which were built according to the orders of Suleiman the Magnificent in the first half of the 16th century CE. In the distance is the Judaean Desert. Beyond the walls of the Old City, is the Mount of Olives and its Jewish cemetery (to the right of the tower on the ridge, flowing down the hillside toward the southeastern corner of the Temple Mount). The Hinnom Valley is just out of sight at the bottom of the picture. Perhaps most interesting in this picture is the Tyropoeon Valley, which can be seen in the shadow that runs north/south (left/right in the picture) through the middle of the Old City, ending on this side of the Temple Mount.
This map highlights the distribution of forces during the Battle of Hattin. The red represents the Crusaders; the yellow represents the Muslim encirclement of their army. To the right is the Northwest tip of the Sea of Galilee and to the north of that are the hills and peaks of Upper Galilee (in the background).
This page, from a book called Nihayat al-Sul, a Mamluk manual on horsemanship that was published in Cairo in the mid- to late-14th century, offers a visual depiction of Mamluk cavalrymen. Note their spears and light armor.
This is a painting of Vasco de Gama, Admiral of the Seas of Arabia, Persia, India, and all the Orient for the Portuguese crown. He lived from ca. 1460-1524 and he is known for the leading the first sea voyage that circumnavigated Africa and found the sea route from Portugal to the far east.
This photo gives a good view of the bay of Acco/Acre, the only natural port site between Tyre and Gaza. In the past it was a central port in Palestine, including in the days of the Crusades. Today it is a modern Israeli/Arab city.
Akko/Acre: aerial view of the fortifications
This aerial view of Acco, looking northwest, shows the Crusader fortification system, including the moat and thick walls. At the heart of the city you can see the Muslim complex of the Gazar Mosque. The port is in the background.
This photograph shows Nebi Musa, located in the Judaean Desert, on the road from Jerusalem down to the Dead Sea. It was used as a stopping point for Muslims on their way from Jerusalem to Mecca. A hospice was in place for this purpose by the end of the 15th century and it gradually became a traditional site for the burial place of Moses (Arabic: Musa). The site was repaired by the Ottomans. Beginning in the 19th century it became a pilgrimage site as part of the Nebi Musa festival, during which pilgrims would trek from Jerusalem to Nebi Musa for a week of celebration.
Jerusalem: Church of the Holy Sepulchre - aedicule of the Anastasis
This photograph shows a small aedicule, a chapel built over the rock cut empty tomb believed to belong to Jesus. It stands at the center of the rotunda, the round architectural structure that was built there by the Crusaders and right underneath the great dome of the church. This part of the church is also called the 'Anastasis,' which means 'raising up' in Greek, and was named as such for the belief in Jesus' resurrection from the tomb.
This map was found to be part of the mosaic floor of a 6th century CE church in Madaba, Jordan (east of the Dead Sea), and includes this map of Byzantine Jerusalem. A broad, column-lined street runs from the north gate south through the center of the city (called a cardo, it is a common feature of Graeco-Roman cities). At the northern end of this street (the left of the picture) there is a monumental column in a public plaza. It is interesting that the modern Arab name for the Damascus Gate is Bab el-'Amud ("Gate of the Column"). At the center of the map you can see the church of the Holy Sepulchre with its yellowish dome. The Inscription at the top left of the map reads 'The Holy City of Jerusalem' (in Greek).
This photograph shows Montfort Castle ('mountain castle' in Latin), which was built by the Teutonic Order (a German order patterned after the Knights Templar) in the early 13th century. It is located in western Galilee protecting one of the local roads that ran from the port city of Acre to Damascus. The castle was surrendered to Baybars, the Sultan of Egypt, in 1271 CE.
Jerusalem: Church of the Holy Sepulchre - plan
This plan shows the original layout of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the time of Constantine and his mother Helen. The complex is made of 3 separate units: at the bottom of the plan, a basilica ending with an apse and Golgotha incorporated into its layout. Between Golgotha and the Anastasis (which is the traditional location of the tomb of Jesus) is a portico.
This close-up of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which is looking northwest, shows the two domes of the church: the Anastasis (the larger dome, on the left) and the dome over the basilica (the smaller dome, on the right). The entrance to the church, and the courtyard in front of it, are at the base of the Crusader tower that is on the far left of the picture.
This photograph of an archway in the Belvoir castle shows architecture typical of the Crusader period - in this case, pointed arches.
Jerusalem in the time of the First Crusade: Map
This map of Jerusalem during time of the Crusades highlights the 3 religious foci in the city: the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (the yellow circle) and the two additional crusader structures that were erected on Temple Mount: the crusaders converted the Dome of the Rock into the Templum Domini and the Al Aqsa Mosque into the Templum Salmonis.
This map shows the 3 political powers in the Mediterranean world on the eve of the Crusades: Catholic Europe (yellow); the Byzantine Empire (orange); and the Arab kingdoms of the Middle East and North Africa (red). The arrows represent the various movements of the First Crusade toward Israel: one through the Rhine; one by ship through Venice and Constantinople; and one by ship from southern Italy through Constantinople. The stars represent the major cities involved: Constantinople, Rome, and Clermont (France).
This monastery in the Judaean Desert, initially called the Great Laura and later Mar Saba (after its founder, Sabas of Cappadocia), was built in 483 CE. It is the result of Byzantine-era hermetic monasticism: in 457 CE, at the age of 18, Mar Saba went into the Judaean Desert to practice a laura-type monastic dedication. Twenty years later struck out on his own to live in a cave near this site; he was soon joined by other hermits. 5 years later they built the first phase of this cliff-type laura. Successive additions enlarged it.
Wadi Qelt: Choziba Monastery (St. George's)
This photograph shows the cliff-side monastery called Choziba or St. George's Monastery, which is in the Wadi Qelt, approximately 3 miles west of Jericho, in the Judaean Desert. The monastery was established in the early fifth century, during the early phase of monastery activity in the region. It is still active and inhabited by Greek Orthodox monks.
Jerusalem: Church of the Holy Sepulchre - Tomb of Jesus
This photograph shows the interior of the Aedicule of the Anastasis, where Christians as early as the 4th century CE believed that Jesus' body was laid before his resurrection.
Jerusalem: Church of the Holy Sepulchre - Chapel of St. Helena
This photograph is taken from the Armenian chapel dedicated to Queen Helena (the mother of Constantine who was entrusted by her son to oversee the building of the church in the 4th century CE). The steps in the background are the 29 steps that lead to the main hall of the church, called the Catholicon.
This photograph shows Nimrud's Castle, which sits on top of a steep hill in the northern Golan Heights, underneath Mt. Hermon. It guarded one of the roads from Tyre to Damascus. This slide looks southwest; in the background is the Huleh Valley and the hills of Upper Galilee. It is unclear when this fort was built, but it was part of the area's defenses during both Crusader and Muslim control of the area. In 1187 it was the site of a large battle between Saladin and Baldwin III, the king of Jerusalem.
Jerusalem: Gold Ring Depicting the Holy Sepulchre
This photograph shows a gold ring that depicts the Aedicule of the Anastasis at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. It was found in a 6th-century building south of the Temple Mount and shows the Anastasis as a free-standing structure (which was how it would have been found prior to the 12th century CE). It might represent one of the many souvenirs that Christian pilgrims bought in Jerusalem.
This map shows the provinces of Roman control around the Mediterranean. The red circle is around Rome, the capital of the Roman Empire, and the arrow points to the city of Constantinople, which is where Constantine moved the capital of the Empire in 330 CE. The new city placed the capital on the seam between Europe and Asia.
Jerusalem: Temple Mount and Dome of the Rock
This aerial view of the Temple Mount, which is looking west, shows not just the massive Temple Mount complex and the Dome of the Rock, but also the Al Aqsa Mosque (to the left, at the south end of the Temple Mount complex) and the eastern wall of the Temple Mount with the sealed Golden Gate (known also as the Mercy Gate and the Beautiful gate). The gate was sealed in the Ottoman period. Note the tower ('minaret' in Arabic) at the top right (northwest) corner of the Temple Mount compound. It belongs to a 13th century mosque called the Ghawanima. The rectangular building to its right (north) with the white roof is a modern Arab school called Omaria. The mosque, the minaret and the Omaria all sit of the ruins and foundation of the Roman-period Antonia fortress.
This map represents the common scholarly opinion about what the layout of Jerusalem looked like after the Second Temple period. The Jewish Temple has been destroyed and, as many scholars believe, a new temple to the Roman god Jupiter has been erected in its place on the temple platform. It also shows the proposed site for the camp of the Tenth Roman Legion (in the southwest corner of the city). The marks on the map represent the views of Prof. Eliav regarding the eastern border of the city (the black line) and the city center (the yellow box).
In the background of this aerial photograph of the Old City of Jerusalem we see the hills of the Judaean desert, as well as Transjordan in the distance. In the near distance, just beyond the city, is the Mount of Olives and Mt. Scopus. In the center of the photograph is the current Old City with its Ottoman walls. The yellow square designates the Christian Quarter with the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at its center (that is what the arrow is pointing to). The Red oval is around the Temple Mount complex, at the center of which is the Dome of the Rock.
Jerualem: Christian Quarter and Dome of the Rock
This close-up aerial photo of the Old City of Jerusalem depicts the complex of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (at the bottom left, with the two grey domes). In the middle background is the Temple Mount and the golden dome of the Dome of the Rock. The Mount of Olives and the Arab village of Et Tur (the smaller of the two towers on the hilltop) is in the distance. The large dome within the complex of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is the Anastasis ('raising up'), and underneath it is the traditional location of Jesus' tomb. The smaller dome is over the main altar in the church's basilica and the place that many Christians believed was the 'navel of the earth'. The long rectangular roofed structure beyond them that looks a bit like the peaked roof a barn or a warehouse is the Chapel of St. Helena. To the right of the Anastasis Dome is a square, bulky tower from the period of the Crusades; to its right is the thin and tall minaret tower of the Mosque of Omar; just behind it is the whitish tall, square and pointed bell tower of the Lutheran Church of the Redeemer, a relatively new church build by the German Kaiser in 1893.
This aerial photograph of the Temple Mount compound, taken from the northeast, shows the large platform at its center, on which sits the Dome of the Rock. To the left of the Dome is the Al Aqsa Mosque, and in the close foreground (at the bottom of the photo) is the eastern wall of Temple Mount with the sealed Golden Gate (known also as the Mercy Gate and the Beautiful gate). The gate was sealed in the Ottoman period. In the background is the Old City of Jerusalem and even further in the background are the high rises of the modern city.
This photograph shows a vertical seam in the eastern wall of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. The 100 foot-wide southernmost stretch of the wall (the left half in the photo) is clearly Herodian construction and indicative of the King Herod's additions to the Temple Mount.
In this photograph the Dome of the Rock is visible in the upper left and the dome of the Al-Aqsa Mosque is visible in the upper right. Below them, Robinson's Arch is visible, springing out of the Western Wall (to the left). The tower rising up at the center of the photo is a minaret (a tower used by the announcer of Muslim prayers), built by the Mamluks in the 14th century for the Fachariya ('women's') Mosque on the Temple Mount. In this photograph, the lighter brown color is indicative of earlier remains that have recently been excavated.
In this photograph of the Old City of Jerusalem after a winter snow, the Temple Mount and Dome of the Rock are visible in the distance (to the east), as is the Mount of Olives in the background and the hills of the Judaean desert to the far right. The grey dome at the bottom of the photograph is the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
This photograph was taken underneath the Temple Mount, in the area known as Solomon's Stables (at the southern end of the Temple Mount, underneath the current Al Aqsa Mosque). Rather than being stables, they are cavernous halls that were built during King Herod's expansion of the Temple Mount. The arches supported flat paving stones on the Temple Mount's surface, thus allowing Herod to level and flatten the elevated surface of the Temple Mount compound. The monumental steps on the southern side of the Temple Mount led through the Hulda Gates into this area before reaching the top of the Temple Mount.
This aerial photograph shows the southern part of the Temple Mount and its massive wall. In the foreground of this photograph is the spine of the hill that was the location of the City of David in the First Temple period. To the top right is the building of the Al-Aqsa mosque (its grey dome is just cut off), and to its left, the modern building with the arched windows is Yeshivat Esh ha-Torah (a Jewish orthodox learning center).
Jerusalem: Herod's enlarged Temple Mount
This aerial photograph of the modern Temple Mount, looking toward the northeast (with the Dome of the Rock roughly in its center and the gray dome of the Al-Aqsa Mosque at its southern end), one can see just how large and well-built King Herod's expansion of the Jewish Temple complex was. The resulting complex was 36 acres in size and the southern extents soared impressively above the surrounding landscape. The southeastern corner is 130 feet above bedrock and more than twice that height above the Kidron Valley floor. It is truly one of the great architectural feats of the Hellenistic or Roman periods. In the center background you can see the water tower and buildings of the Hebrew University campus on Mount Scopus. Further on the horizon are the hills of the Central Hill.
Jerusalem: Robinson's Arch (reconstruction)
In this drawing, the yellow pieces are those that have been found in archaeological excavations and the rest are an architect's reconstruction of how the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount probably looked in the Second Temple period: a monumental stairway led to the southern part of the Temple Mount. The yellow portion attached to the wall of the Temple Mount is known by its name 'Robinson's arch' (after the 19th century archaeologist Edward Robinson who found it).
This photograph shows the 'springer' for Robinson's Arch. In 1838, Edward Robinson noticed the strange, curved stones jutting out of the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount (to the upper left of center in this photograph). He realized that these stones were the 'springers' (i.e., the foundation, or the beginning) of an arch that probably supported a walkway that connected to the top of the Temple Mount on one side and to a stairway on the other. Later excavators found archaeological evidence for the stairwell, thus confirming Robinson's theory. The grey dome at the top of the picture belongs to the Al-Aqsa Mosque, which sits inside the Temple Mount compound.
Jerusalem: objects from a wealthy Second Temple family
The mosaic floor, stone-carved table, and stone vessels are from the Jerusalem Jewish Quarter excavations, which revealed the upper-class houses from the Second Temple period. As a result, we can say that, for instance, upper-class Jerusalemites in the late Second Temple period were concerned with ritual purity (as is suggested by the stone vessels), and that their mosaics were ornate but lacked human and animal representations.
This photograph shows the detail of extra-long blocks that King Herod's engineers used to bind the existing exterior walls of the Temple Mount compound to the southern addition that he was building. Some of these blocks measure 39 feet long and weigh more than 100 tons.
This inscription, written in Greek, was found in the City of David, south of the Temple Mount, in 1914. It can be dated, on the basis of script, to the reign of King Herod (37-4 BCE), and its content points to a synagogue having been built in Jerusalem at least two generations earlier. It reads, 'Theodotus Vettanos [or, son of Vettanos], priest and synagogue leader [archisynagogos], son of a synagogue leader [archisynagogos], built [or 'restored'] this synagogue for the purpose of the reading of the Law and for the instruction of the commandments of the Law, the hostel and guest rooms, and the baths for foreigners who need them. This synagogue was established by his forefathers, the elders and Simonides.'
Jerusalem: Model of Herod's Western Fortress
This scale model of Second Temple Jerusalem resides at the Israel Museum in modern Jerusalem. This particular photograph shows the towers that were part of a defense system of Jerusalem constructed by Herod the Great at its western border to guard both the entrance to the city and the palace that he built just to the south. This model is based partly on the description of the fortress by the Jewish historian Josephus and partly on the results of excavations in the later Citadel (known as the Tower of David), which was built over Herod's fort. Josephus tells us that Herod named the towers after three of his closest associates – his wife Miriam, his brother Phasael, and his close friend Hippicus.
An especially high quality of pottery, modeled after Nabataean pottery, was produced in Jerusalem toward the end of the Second Temple period. It is very thin and delicate, with hand-painted designs that are impressive for this period. Note the lack of any figurative art, which is a common feature of Nabataean and Jewish pottery and architecture in this period.
Jerusalem: Broad Stairs at the Temple Mount
This monumental staircase, located to the south of the Temple Mount compound (the wall of which is seen in the background) is one of two that led up to the Double and Triple Huldah Gates and into the Temple Mount. They were built as part of King Herod the Great's monumental renovation project. This particular staircase is 200 feet across and allowed access to the Temple Mount platform from the Lower City (know today as the City of David) and other parts of the southern city of Jerusalem. They were probably in use until after the Crusades.
This plan shows what Jerusalem looked like after the Roman emperor Hadrian (117-138 CE) ordered the establishment of a colony named Aelia Capitolina in 130-132 CE. Some scholars believe that a temple to Jupiter was erected on the site where the Jewish temple had been, which is what this map shows. The camp of the Tenth Roman Legion occupied the southwestern corner of the city.
Jerusalem: "Place of the Trumpeting" inscription
This stone, with an inscription in Hebrew that reads, 'To the place of trumpeting to an(nounce)…,' was found in excavations at the base of the southwest corner of the Temple Mount (where many things were found that had been thrown off of the Temple Mount by Roman soldiers that destroyed it in 70 CE). It likely originally marked the spot (or gave directions to the spot) where a priest would have blown the trumpet that announced the beginning and end of the Sabbath.
These three doorways, which were blocked up after the Crusader period, led from the monumental steps on the south side of the Temple Mount into the Temple Mount and the area called Solomon's Stables. They were built into the base of the Temple Mount during King Herod's massive renovation project and allowed access to the Temple Mount from the Lower City (known today as the City of David) and other areas to the south.
This photograph shows the Damascus Gate (one of the northern entrances into the Old City of Jerusalem) and a lower, earlier doorway of the Roman gate that stood at the same place. Above the arch is a worn inscription that reads 'Colonia Ae[lia] Cap[itolina]' - The Colony of Aelia Capitolina, indicating that it was built in the time of Hadrian (early 2nd century CE). Inside the doorway is a guard room and a stairwell that ascends within the eastern gateway tower to the present day parapet above the city wall.
This bronze coin was minted in 131 CE and commemorates the rededication of Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina (the inscription is in Latin and reads 'COL[onia] AEL[ia] KAP[itolina]'). The picture in the middle of the coin is the façade of the temple to the Capitoline Triad that Hadrian had erected on the Temple Mount (according to some scholars), with the seated figure of Jupiter inside flanked by the goddesses Juno and Minerva. Many have argued that the building of the Temple of Jupiter was a catalyst for the Bar Kokhba Revolt (131-135 CE).