Luxor: Merneptah Stele - detail
description: This close-up of the name 'Israel,' written in Egyptian hieroglyphics, comes from an inscription written on granite during the reign of the Egyptian king <span class="tooltip" title=' The Egyptian pharaoh who gave us the first extra-biblical reference to Israel (ca. 1207 BCE). Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Merneptah (1213-1203 BCE). This is the earliest preserved inscriptional evidence of Israel and it is mentioned together with three other defeated states in <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the Land of Israel/Palestine prior to period of the Monarchy (ca. 1000 BCE). The people who lived in the land prior to the Israelites are called "Canaanites" in the Hebrew Bible and other sources. Further Reading '>Canaan (Gezer, Yanoam, and <span class="tooltip" title=' A coastal city in the southern part of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Ashkelon). The hieroglyphic symbols used designate a foreign people group, as opposed to a city (as the words for Ashkelon, Gezer, and Yano'am are marked), suggesting that in the late 12th century Israel had achieved a specific identity as a people but had not yet developed into a fixed political entity or state.
date: -1213-01-01/-1203-01-01

Luxor: Merneptah Stele - overview
description: The <span class="tooltip" title=' The Egyptian pharaoh who gave us the first extra-biblical reference to Israel (ca. 1207 BCE). Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Merneptah Stele, pictured here, is an inscription written in <span class="tooltip" title=' An ancient pictorial writing system that was used by the Egyptians. Further Reading '>hieroglyphs on granite during the reign of the Egyptian king Merneptah (1213-1203 BCE). It contains the earliest preserved inscriptional evidence of the name Israel (and perhaps therefore the <span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelites). In the inscription 'Israel' it is mentioned together with three other defeated states in <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the Land of Israel/Palestine prior to period of the Monarchy (ca. 1000 BCE). The people who lived in the land prior to the Israelites are called "Canaanites" in the Hebrew Bible and other sources. Further Reading '>Canaan (Gezer, Yanoam, and <span class="tooltip" title=' A coastal city in the southern part of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Ashkelon). The hieroglyphic symbols used designate a foreign people group, as opposed to a city (as the words for Ashkelon, Gezer, and Yano'am are marked), suggesting that in the late 12th century Israel had achieved a specific identity as a people but had not yet developed into a fixed political entity or state.
date: -1213-01-01/-1203-01-01

Luxor: The Great Harris Papyrus
description: This wonderfully preserved <span class="tooltip" title=' The ancient equivalent of paper. It was made from the stalk of the papyrus reed, a plant that was best known for growing in the Nile River in Egypt Further Reading '>papyrus, probably created around 1,200 BCE, is one of the longest papyri that has been preserved from ancient Egypt (it is almost 138 feet long). It is divided into three parts; this section is in the part describing the reign of <span class="tooltip" title=' The Pharoah of Egypt from 1184-1153 BCE. His mortuary temple at Medinet Habu in Thebes, Egypt, records his conquest of the Philistines. Further Reading '>Ramses III (1184-1153 BCE) and the internal civil conflict that was present in Egypt at the beginning of the 20th Dynasty (which lasted from 1186-1069 BCE). In part it describes his battles against the <span class="tooltip" title=' The name used for an otherwise unknown group (or groups) who colonized the eastern Mediterranean at the end of the Bronze Age. Further Reading '>Peoples of the Sea. The text is written in <span class="tooltip" title=' A cursive script that evolved from hieroglyphics (and was easier and quicker to write than the cumbersome symbols of hieroglyphics). Further Reading '>hieratic, which is a cursive script that evolved from hieroglyphics (and was easier and quicker to write than the cumbersome symbols of hieroglyphics).
date: -1200-01-01

Luxor: The Sea Peoples Inscription
description: This slide shows the second monumental gateway (called by the Greek word for gateway, 'pylon') of the great mortuary temple of <span class="tooltip" title=' The Pharoah of Egypt from 1184-1153 BCE. His mortuary temple at Medinet Habu in Thebes, Egypt, records his conquest of the Philistines. Further Reading '>Ramses III at Medinet Habu in Thebes. To the left is a relief showing Ramses leading enemy captives, including a row of <span class="tooltip" title=' One of the Sea Peoples who settled along the southern shores of Canaan around 1150 BCE. Overview | Further Reading '>Philistines, before Amun, the god of Thebes. On the right is a long hieroglyphic inscription in which Ramses describes the advance toward Egypt of an alliance of <span class="tooltip" title=' The name used for an otherwise unknown group (or groups) who colonized the eastern Mediterranean at the end of the Bronze Age. Further Reading '>Sea Peoples who were defeated by Ramses (according to him).
date: -1186-01-01/-1154-01-01

Madaba: Madaba Map
description: This map was found to be part of the mosaic floor of a 6th century CE church in Madaba, Jordan (east of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), it is located to the east of the Central Hill, between the modern countries of Israel and Jordan. Further Reading '>Dead Sea), and includes this map of <span class="tooltip" title=' The name we use today for the Roman Empire in its Christian phase, which is to say, from Constantine until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. In Palestine, Byzantine rule ended with the Islamic conquest (i.e., it lasted from 332-636 CE in our region). Further Reading '>Byzantine Jerusalem. A broad, column-lined street runs from the north gate south through the center of the city (called a cardo, it is a common feature of Graeco-Roman cities). At the northern end of this street (the left of the picture) there is a monumental column in a public plaza. It is interesting that the modern Arab name for the <span class="tooltip" title=' The capital of modern Syria, just to the north of the Golan Heights. It was also the capital of the Umayyad caliphate (661-750 CE). Further Reading '>Damascus Gate is Bab el-'Amud ("Gate of the Column"). At the center of the map you can see the <span class="tooltip" title=" Commissioned to be built in Jerusalem by Constantine's mother Helen in 326 CE, ostensibly over the sites of Jesus' crucifixion and burial, it became the center of Byzantine Jerusalem. Further Reading ">church of the Holy Sepulchre with its yellowish dome. The Inscription at the top left of the map reads 'The Holy City of Jerusalem' (in Greek).
date: 0500-01-01/0600-01-01

Madaba: Madaba Map
description: This map was found to be part of the mosaic floor of a 6th century CE church in Madaba, Jordan (east of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), it is located to the east of the Central Hill, between the modern countries of Israel and Jordan. Further Reading '>Dead Sea), and includes this map of <span class="tooltip" title=' The name we use today for the Roman Empire in its Christian phase, which is to say, from Constantine until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. In Palestine, Byzantine rule ended with the Islamic conquest (i.e., it lasted from 332-636 CE in our region). Further Reading '>Byzantine Jerusalem. A broad, column-lined street runs from the north gate south through the center of the city (called a cardo, it is a common feature of Graeco-Roman cities). At its northern end is the <span class="tooltip" title=' The capital of modern Syria, just to the north of the Golan Heights. It was also the capital of the Umayyad caliphate (661-750 CE). Further Reading '>Damascus Gate. The Damascus Gate that we see today was built in the <span class="tooltip" title=' The Turkish empire from the 16th-20th centuries CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Ottoman period, but archaeologists have found a Hadrianic Gate beneath it (117-134 CE), and the <span class="tooltip" title=' A 6th century CE mosaic map of Palestine that was found in the floor of a Byzantine church in the modern-day town of Madaba, Jordan. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Madaba Map, shown here, depicts its existence in the 6th century CE. It is interesting to note that the Arabic name for the Damascus Gate is Bab el-'Amud ('Gate of the Column'). Note the depiction of the northern gate and column in the Madaba Map.
date: 0500-01-01/0600-01-01

Mamluk Architecture in the Old City of Jerusalem
description: The <span class="tooltip" title=' The Arabic word for "owned". The term was initially applied to the warriors who were servants of the Ayyubids, but was later used in reference to the Mamluk dynasty (1260-1516 CE) that was created by their rise to power. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Mamluks (1250–1517 CE) introduced many unique styles of architecture to Jerusalem. The vaulted doorway pictured here is an example of a finely crafted recessed stone arch encased with a klebo design of interlaced stone blocks of dark and light colors.

Maresha: The Sidonian Tomb
description: This detail photograph is from the '<span class="tooltip" title=' A Phoenician city on the coast of modern day Lebanon. It and the city of Tyre were the two main Phoenician cities in antiquity. Further Reading '>Sidonian Tomb,' so called because of an inscription that says that the deceased were members of a Sidonian colony living at Maresha. In this photograph we see paintings of animals from Egypt, along with their Greek names: a lynx (left), a porcupine (center), and perhaps a rhinoceros (right).
date: -0198-01-01/-0119-01-01

Maresha: The Sidonian Tomb
description: This photograph shows the entrance stairs leading down into the <span class="tooltip" title=' A Phoenician city on the coast of modern day Lebanon. It and the city of Tyre were the two main Phoenician cities in antiquity. Further Reading '>Sidonian Tomb at Maresha, so called because of an inscription that says that the deceased who were buried here were members of a Sidonian community in Maresha. The paintings on the walls show a hunting scene.
date: -0198-01-01/-0119-01-01

Maresha: The Sidonian Tomb
description: This detail photograph is from the '<span class="tooltip" title=' A Phoenician city on the coast of modern day Lebanon. It and the city of Tyre were the two main Phoenician cities in antiquity. Further Reading '>Sidonian Tomb' at Maresha, so called because of an inscription that says that the deceased were members of a Sidonian colony at Maresha. In this photograph we see a painting of a horse-mounted hunter accompanied by a hunting dog spearing a leopard. The Greek inscription above the rider reads 'the white horse of the rider,' and the Greek word above the leopard says 'pardalos,' a variant of the Greek word for the animal ('pardalis').
date: -0198-01-01/-0119-01-01

Maresha: The Sidonian Tomb
description: This photograph shows the back wall of the <span class="tooltip" title=' A Phoenician city on the coast of modern day Lebanon. It and the city of Tyre were the two main Phoenician cities in antiquity. Further Reading '>Sidonian Tomb at Maresha, called the 'Sidonian' Tomb because of an inscription designates the tomb's deceased as members of a Sidonian colony living at Maresha. Each of the openings on the walls is a 'loculus,' which is where the bodies of the deceased were placed. There were 41 loculi in total.
date: -0198-01-01/-0119-01-01

Masada: aerial view
description: This aerial photograph, looking southeast, shows the mountaintop fortress of Masada, located in the <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the administrative region around Jerusalem in the late Second Temple and Roman periods. Further Reading '>Judaean Desert, which rises 400 feet above the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), it is located to the east of the Central Hill, between the modern countries of Israel and Jordan. Further Reading '>Dead Sea. <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish king of Edumaean descent who ruled Palestine under Roman authority from 40-4 BCE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>King Herod (37-4 BCE) built two palaces on top, and the Northern Palace is visible here. Note the series of three rooms that descend from the top of the mountain and are built as if hanging on the cliffs. Masada was abandoned after his death, but rebels who escaped the Roman Army's attack on Jerusalem in 70 CE fled here and were later besieged. On the lower right side of the photo there is what looks like a sandy slope leading almost to the top of the mountain. This is the siege ramp that the Roman Army built over the course of two years (71-73 CE), with which they were finally able to take the fortress.
date: 0070-01-01/0073-01-01

Masada: aerial view
description: This aerial close-up of the northern outcropping of the mountaintop fortress of Masada shows the three-tiered Northern Palace that was built by <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish king of Edumaean descent who ruled Palestine under Roman authority from 40-4 BCE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>King Herod the Great (37-4 BCE), as well as storehouses and a bath house (at the top of the photograph). The Jewish historian <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish historian from whom we know much about life in 1st century CE Palestine. His works include a history of the first Jewish revolt against the Romans, which began in 66 CE, entitled The Jewish War Further Reading '>Josephus wrote that when the rebels who fled from Jerusalem arrived at Masada, they found still-edible wheat in the storerooms.
date: 0070-01-01/0073-01-01

Masada: aerial view
description: This aerial close-up of the northern outcropping of the mountaintop fortress of Masada shows the three-tiered Northern Palace that was built by <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish king of Edumaean descent who ruled Palestine under Roman authority from 40-4 BCE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Herod the Great, as well as storehouses and a bath house (at the top of the photograph). The Jewish historian <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish historian from whom we know much about life in 1st century CE Palestine. His works include a history of the first Jewish revolt against the Romans, which began in 66 CE, entitled The Jewish War Further Reading '>Josephus wrote that when the rebels who fled from Jerusalem arrived at Masada, they found still-edible wheat in the storerooms
date: 0070-01-01/0073-01-01

Masada: Roman catapult stones
description: The large stones visible in the foreground of this picture are catapult stones that were used in the Roman siege of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the administrative region around Jerusalem in the late Second Temple and Roman periods. Further Reading '>Judaean desert fortress of Masada (in 73 CE). They are obviously very large and very heavy, and were made by the Roman soldiers when they arrived at Masada and began the siege that marked the end of the Great Revolt.
date: 0070-01-01/0073-01-01

Masada: the synagogue
description: This photograph shows the <span class="tooltip" title=' Literally "to come together" in Greek, synagogues were Jewish religious and social institutions in the late Second Temple Period that came to replace the Temple as the Jewish place of worship after 70 CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>synagogue within the fortress of Masada, which is located in the <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the administrative region around Jerusalem in the late Second Temple and Roman periods. Further Reading '>Judaean Desert (note the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), it is located to the east of the Central Hill, between the modern countries of Israel and Jordan. Further Reading '>Dead Sea in the top right of the picture). At the end of the Jewish revolt against Rome in 70 CE, some of the rebels who were part of a group called the Zealots, fled Jerusalem to the mountaintop fortress of Masada. They either refurbished a previously-existing synagogue or turned a room into a synagogue, building benches along the walls and installing a small inner room to serve as a genizah (storage room for used or damaged scrolls). Two pits dug into the floor of the small room yielded two scrolls, one of <span class="tooltip" title=' The fifth book of the Torah (the "Law" section of the Hebrew Bible). Further Reading '>Deuteronomy and one of <span class="tooltip" title=' The third book of the Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible and a book in the Christian Old Testament. Further Reading '>Ezekiel. Fragments of other scrolls were found nearby. Some of the fragments appear to have been written in the same scribal tradition as texts found in the <span class="tooltip" title=' An archaeological site in the Judaean Desert in which the remains of a Jewish sectarian group were uncovered. Modern scholars tend to identify this group with the Essenes, who lived there between 150 BCE and 68 CE and probably produced the Dead Sea Scrolls. Further Re…
date: 0070-01-01/0073-01-01

Mediterranean Close-up
description: The areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea have played a pivotal role in the history of the ancient world. On the northern coast, from west to east, we encounter the regions of Spain, France, Italy, the Balkans, Greece, Turkey, and the Black Sea. On the southern coast we find Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt. The land of Israel/Palestine is on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean.

Middle Bronze Age I Pottery
description: This photograph shows some of the common pottery from the <span class="tooltip" title=" 2,200-1,750 BCE ">Middle Bronze I period (2,000-1,900 BCE). The basin-shaped vessel in the foreground center with the four pinched corners is an ancient lamp. Oil would be put inside and wicks would run through the pinched corners.
date: -2000-01-01/-1900-01-01

Montfort: aerial view
description: This photograph shows Montfort Castle ('mountain castle' in Latin), which was built by the Teutonic Order (a German order patterned after the Knights Templar) in the early 13th century. It is located in western <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee protecting one of the local roads that ran from the port city of Acre to <span class="tooltip" title=' The capital of modern Syria, just to the north of the Golan Heights. It was also the capital of the Umayyad caliphate (661-750 CE). Further Reading '>Damascus. The castle was surrendered to <span class="tooltip" title=' The founder of the Mamluk dynasty. His greatest victory was against the Monguls at the Battle of Ein Galud (north of the Central Hill, in the Jezreel Valley) in 1260 CE. Further Reading '>Baybars, the Sultan of Egypt, in 1271 CE.
date: 1200-01-01/1271-01-01

Mortuary Temple of Ramesses III (Medinet Habu, Luxor, Egypt)
description: This image shows the burial-temple complex of Ramesses III (1186–1155 BCE), one of the last powerful Egyptian kings. The walls display an impressive array of inscriptions, hieroglyphics, and decorated reliefs. Some tell the story of the rise of the “<span class="tooltip" title=' The name used for an otherwise unknown group (or groups) who colonized the eastern Mediterranean at the end of the Bronze Age. Further Reading '>Sea People” known as the “Peleshet.” These are the biblical <span class="tooltip" title=' One of the Sea Peoples who settled along the southern shores of Canaan around 1150 BCE. Overview | Further Reading '>Philistines, from which the modern term “Palestine” is derived. Ramesses inscriptions boast of victory over the Peleshet, but this probably includes more exaggeration than fact. Such boasting, at any rate, attests to the growing presence of sea-faring people into the eastern Mediterranean who sought to escape the economic crisis of the late Bronze Age. These “Sea People” ventured east and filled a power vacuum left by diminution of the Egyptians and Hittites.

Mt. Gerizim: Modern Samaritans
description: This photograph shows modern <span class="tooltip" title=' A group of people turned a nation who lived in the northern parts of the Central Hill, namely in the territories of the former northern kingdom of Israel. They continue to exist till this very day. According to the Bible, the Samaritans competed with the Judeans in the Persian era. Further Reading '>Samaritans, one of whom is holding a Torah scroll, on Mt. Gerizim. The Samaritans still practice their religion in much the same way that ancient Jews practiced their religion prior to the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE. They slaughter lambs at Passover and burn parts of the sacrifice on a fire much as happened in the Jerusalem Temple courts. And the Samaritans of today still hold their religious festivals on Mt. Gerizim, near the archaeological ruins of their ancient Temple.

Mt. Gerizim: the Samaritan Temple
description: This aerial photograph looking north at Mt. Gerizim, which is located in the northern part of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill, shows the remains of the Samaritan Temple. The city of Shechem sat in the valley below (a portion of which can be seen on the right and side). Shechem's name was changed to Neapolis ('New City') in the late 1st century CE, and that name is still preserved in the modern Arabic name of the city, Nablus.
date: -0586-01-01/-0129-01-01

Nahal Mishmar: Chalcolithic bronze hoard
description: These copper objects are part of one of the most famous hoards of objects ever found in the region. The hoard consisted of over 400 items that were found hidden in a cave high in a cliff overlooking Nahal Mishmar, a seasonal river bed near En Gedi, in the <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the administrative region around Jerusalem in the late Second Temple and Roman periods. Further Reading '>Judaean Desert. The fine workmanship and uncommon use of the metal objects suggests that they had been taken from a cultic center, although their exact significance and use is unknown. The pottery found with them dated to 3,500 BCE, and some have suggested that the objects came from a Chalcolithic temple that was found 6 miles away. These objects were made using the 'lost wax' process, in which wax was carved into the shape of the artifact, encased in clay, and fired, causing the wax to melt and the clay to harden. Molten copper was then poured into the clay form.
date: -3500-01-01

Nazareth: Church of the Annunciation
description: This photograph of the modern city of Nazareth, in Lower <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee, shows the Church of the Annunciation, which was originally built in the 4th century CE by Helen, the mother of the emperor <span class="tooltip" title=' Roman emperor from 306-337 CE. He recognized Christianity as the official religion of the empire and moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul). Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Constantine. It stands over the place where, according to Catholic tradition, Mary stood when an angel announced to her that she was pregnant with Jesus as a result of God's divine intervention. The current building is from the 1960s but it stands over archaeological remains of a Crusader church and other ancient structures.
date: 0350-01-01/2000-01-01

Near Nahal Tabor: Female Figurine
description: This 6 inch-high clay figurine dates to the Late Neolithic Age (6,000-5,000 BCE), which is the same time that the earliest baked clay vessels were being made. It is the only complete one of its kind from this period, although fragments have been found elsewhere. Its interpretation is contested - for instance, some scholars think that the figurine is nude; others that the deep lines around the shoulders indicate some kind of garment. Its significance and use are also debated - was it used for religious purposes (and if so, how?), or was it nothing more than a child's toy? Figurines, often depicting naked females, are well known from later periods and have often been understood to be associated with fertility rites, whether for human or agricultural fertility.
date: -6000-01-01/-5000-01-01

Near Tel Dothan: Bronze Bull
description: This bronze bull was found on a hilltop southwest of Mt. Gilboa, all the way at the northern end of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>central hill. When the site was excavated, excavators found an elliptical wall, 70 feet in diameter, inside of which was a large, roughly hewn stone that was 4 feet long, 3 feet high, and 1.75 feet thick. Next to the large stone were some paving stones. Nearby was a piece of folded bronze that had a handle attached and a square fragment of pottery that might have been part of a square-based incense burner like those found at Beit Shean, Megiddo, and Taanach. The excavator interpreted the wall as a temenos (i.e., a sacred enclosure), the bronze fragment as a mirror, and the large stone as an altar. The placement of the site and the combination of the above evidence also led him to conclude that the bull figure had been used at this site and that it was an early <span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelite open-air high place, or bamah. Early Israelite bull worship is known from the Bible (<span class="tooltip" title=' The second book of the Bible and the name for the Israelite migration from Egypt in the days of Moses. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Exodus 32), as well as in the northern Kingdom of Israel in the <span class="tooltip" title=" 900-700 BCE ">Iron Age II (<span class="tooltip" title=' The biblical books of 1 and 2 Kings portray the history of the Israelite and Judean monarchies from the reign of Solomon until the destruction of the first temple by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. Further Reading '>1 Kings 12:28-33; 2 Kings 10:29). Othe…
date: -1200-01-01/-1000-01-01

Negev Desert: Middle Bronze Age I Architecture
description: This photograph shows a simple one-room 'round house' in the <span class="tooltip" title=' The arid region south of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Negev Desert that was built around 2,000 BCE. The pillar in the middle of the room supported the roof. It seems that they were used only for sleeping quarters: all cooking ovens and other small installations were found outside the rooms. It is possible, perhaps even likely, that these houses were only used on a seasonal basis by pastoral groups: no cultivated grains were found in soil samples and no burials were found.
date: -2000-01-01/-1900-01-01

Negev Desert: Middle Bronze Age I Architecture - detail
description: This photograph shows a reconstruction of how the roof was probably built on a Round House. Wooden beams from the trunk of a nearby tamarisk tree were laid like spokes radiating from the central pillar to the outer wall, and broad, flat stones were laid on top and then covered with plaster. Archaeologists found numerous flat stones like these and patches of plaster in the debris of every house that they excavated. Charred remains of wooden beams were found lying in the radiating position in several houses.
date: -2000-01-01/-1900-01-01

Nimrud's Castle: aerial view
description: This photograph shows Nimrud's Castle, which sits on top of a steep hill in the northern <span class="tooltip" title=' A high plateau that rises east and northeast of the Sea of Galilee. Modern Israel took this region from Syria in the war of 1967 (also known as the Six Day War), and continues to hold it to this day. Further Reading '>Golan Heights, underneath Mt. Hermon. It guarded one of the roads from <span class="tooltip" title=' A Phoenician city on the coast of modern day Lebanon. It and the city of Sidon were the two main Phoenician cities in antiquity. Further Reading '>Tyre to <span class="tooltip" title=' The capital of modern Syria, just to the north of the Golan Heights. It was also the capital of the Umayyad caliphate (661-750 CE). Further Reading '>Damascus. This slide looks southwest; in the background is the <span class="tooltip" title=' A valley in Upper Galilee, to the west of the Golan Heights. Today it is a rich agricultural valley surrounded by steep heights to the east and west; however, in antiquity it was a swamp. Further Reading '>Huleh Valley and the hills of Upper <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee. It is unclear when this fort was built, but it was part of the area's defenses during both Crusader and Muslim control of the area. In 1187 it was the site of a large battle between <span class="tooltip" title=' An Ayyubid ruler whose victories over the Crusaders in the late 12th century CE (and particularly the Battle of Hattin in 1187 CE) greatly limited the Crusader presence in Palestine. Further Reading '>Saladin and Baldwin III, the king of Jerusalem.
date: 1100-01-01/1200-01-01

Nimrud's Castle: fortifications
description: This photograph shows a close-up of the fortifications around Nimrod's Castle, including the main defensive wall and its rounded towers. The castle is located in the modern-day northern <span class="tooltip" title=' A high plateau that rises east and northeast of the Sea of Galilee. Modern Israel took this region from Syria in the war of 1967 (also known as the Six Day War), and continues to hold it to this day. Further Reading '>Golan Heights, on the southern slopes of Mt. Hermon, and guards the route from <span class="tooltip" title=' A Phoenician city on the coast of modern day Lebanon. It and the city of Sidon were the two main Phoenician cities in antiquity. Further Reading '>Tyre to <span class="tooltip" title=' The capital of modern Syria, just to the north of the Golan Heights. It was also the capital of the Umayyad caliphate (661-750 CE). Further Reading '>Damascus. Major additions to the fortress were made in 1229 CE under the <span class="tooltip" title=' An Islamic dynasty of Kurdish origin that was centered in Cairo. After defeating the Crusaders at the Battle of Hattin in 1187, they ruled over parts of Palestine until 1260. Their most famous leader was Saladin. Further Reading '>Ayyubid dynasty to guard against an invasion of Damascus by the Christian Crusaders. The view looks northeast.
date: 1100-01-01/1200-01-01

Nimrud/Kalhu: Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III - detail 1 of 4
description: This detail photograph of the Black Obelisk of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Assyria was a major Mesopotamian empire which ruled over Palestine in the 8th-7th centuries BCE. Further Reading '>Assyrian king <span class="tooltip" title=' The King of Assyria from 858-824 BCE. He defeated a coalition of tribes led by Ahab at the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BCE. Further Reading '>Shalmaneser III (858-824 BCE) shows King <span class="tooltip" title=' The king of the northern kingdom of Israel from ca. 841-814 BCE. He is mentioned in the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. Further Reading '>Jehu, son of King <span class="tooltip" title=' The king of the northern kingdom of Israel from 880-847 BCE. He is mentioned in the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III and the Mesha Stele. Further Reading '>Omri, kissing the ground at Shalmaneser's feet. The divine symbols of the god Shamash (the winged disk) and the goddess Ishtar (the star) hover above the scene. It is worth noting that although Shalmaneser was suggesting with this obelisk that his victory against Jehu and the other western rulers was complete, he retreated from the area after exacting tribute and did not return to the west during the remainder of his reign.
date: -0825-01-01

Nimrud/Kalhu: Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III - detail 2 of 4
description: This detail photograph of the Black Obelisk of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Assyria was a major Mesopotamian empire which ruled over Palestine in the 8th-7th centuries BCE. Further Reading '>Assyrian King <span class="tooltip" title=' The King of Assyria from 858-824 BCE. He defeated a coalition of tribes led by Ahab at the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BCE. Further Reading '>Shalmaneser III (858-824 BCE) shows an inscription (at the top, in <span class="tooltip" title=' A wedge-shaped non-alphabetic script that was used for the ancient languages of Akkadian, Sumerian, Babylonian, and Ugaritic. These languages were written on clay tablets, not paper, and the symbols were pressed into the clay with a stylus. Further Reading '>cuneiform script), part of which reads: "The tribute of <span class="tooltip" title=' The king of the northern kingdom of Israel from ca. 841-814 BCE. He is mentioned in the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. Further Reading '>Jehu (Iaua), son of <span class="tooltip" title=' The king of the northern kingdom of Israel from 880-847 BCE. He is mentioned in the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III and the Mesha Stele. Further Reading '>Omri (Humri); I received from him silver, gold, a golden saplu bowl, a golden vase with pointed bottom, golden tumblers, golden buckets, tin, a staff for a king, and wooden [meaning unknown]." The people below the inscription are servants bringing these precious objects to the king. Though we cannot know if their attire was representative of <span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelite dress, it is noteworthy that they, like Jehu, are dressed differently than other people on the obelisk and that their dress was meant to <span class="tooltip" title=' The Gospel of Mark is most likely the earliest of the four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) that are contained in the New Testament. Further Reading | Eve…
date: -0825-01-01

Nimrud/Kalhu: Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III - detail 3 of 4
description: This detail photograph of the Black Obelisk of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Assyria was a major Mesopotamian empire which ruled over Palestine in the 8th-7th centuries BCE. Further Reading '>Assyrian King <span class="tooltip" title=' The King of Assyria from 858-824 BCE. He defeated a coalition of tribes led by Ahab at the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BCE. Further Reading '>Shalmaneser III (858-824 BCE) shows an inscription (at the top, in <span class="tooltip" title=' A wedge-shaped non-alphabetic script that was used for the ancient languages of Akkadian, Sumerian, Babylonian, and Ugaritic. These languages were written on clay tablets, not paper, and the symbols were pressed into the clay with a stylus. Further Reading '>cuneiform script) that reads, in part, 'The tribute of <span class="tooltip" title=' The king of the northern kingdom of Israel from ca. 841-814 BCE. He is mentioned in the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. Further Reading '>Jehu (Iaua), son of <span class="tooltip" title=' The king of the northern kingdom of Israel from 880-847 BCE. He is mentioned in the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III and the Mesha Stele. Further Reading '>Omri (Humri); I received from him silver, gold, a golden saplu bowl, a golden vase with pointed bottom, golden tumblers, golden buckets, tin, a staff for a king, and wooden [meaning unknown].' The people below the inscription are servants bringing these precious objects to the king. Though we cannot know if their attire was representative of <span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelite dress, it is noteworthy that they, like Jehu, are dressed differently than other people on the obelisk and that their dress was meant to <span class="tooltip" title=' The Gospel of Mark is most likely the earliest of the four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) that are contained in the New Testament. Further Reading | Even…
date: -0825-01-01

Nimrud/Kalhu: Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III - detail 4 of 4
description: This detail photograph of the Black Obelisk of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Assyria was a major Mesopotamian empire which ruled over Palestine in the 8th-7th centuries BCE. Further Reading '>Assyrian King <span class="tooltip" title=' The King of Assyria from 858-824 BCE. He defeated a coalition of tribes led by Ahab at the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BCE. Further Reading '>Shalmaneser III (858-824 BCE) shows an inscription (at the top, in <span class="tooltip" title=' A wedge-shaped non-alphabetic script that was used for the ancient languages of Akkadian, Sumerian, Babylonian, and Ugaritic. These languages were written on clay tablets, not paper, and the symbols were pressed into the clay with a stylus. Further Reading '>cuneiform script) that reads, in part, 'The tribute of <span class="tooltip" title=' The king of the northern kingdom of Israel from ca. 841-814 BCE. He is mentioned in the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. Further Reading '>Jehu (Iaua), son of <span class="tooltip" title=' The king of the northern kingdom of Israel from 880-847 BCE. He is mentioned in the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III and the Mesha Stele. Further Reading '>Omri (Humri); I received from him silver, gold, a golden saplu bowl, a golden vase with pointed bottom, golden tumblers, golden buckets, tin, a staff for a king, and wooden [meaning unknown].' The people below the inscription are servants bringing these precious objects to the king. Though we cannot know if their attire was representative of <span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelite dress, it is noteworthy that they, like Jehu, are dressed differently than other people on the obelisk and that their dress was meant to <span class="tooltip" title=' The Gospel of Mark is most likely the earliest of the four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) that are contained in the New Testament. Further Reading | Even…
date: -0825-01-01

Nimrud/Kalhu: Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III - overview
description: The Black Obelisk of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Assyria was a major Mesopotamian empire which ruled over Palestine in the 8th-7th centuries BCE. Further Reading '>Assyrian King <span class="tooltip" title=' The King of Assyria from 858-824 BCE. He defeated a coalition of tribes led by Ahab at the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BCE. Further Reading '>Shalmaneser III (858-824 BCE) was carved on all four sides and five registers of reliefs illustrate the obeisance of four rulers from Shalmaneser's western campaigns. It is important for the history of Israel/Palestine because it is one of the few archaeological finds that bears directly on the Biblical narrative, as one of the conquered rulers is <span class="tooltip" title=' The king of the northern kingdom of Israel from ca. 841-814 BCE. He is mentioned in the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. Further Reading '>Jehu, son of <span class="tooltip" title=' The king of the northern kingdom of Israel from 880-847 BCE. He is mentioned in the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III and the Mesha Stele. Further Reading '>Omri.
date: -0825-01-01

Nineveh: Prism of Sennacherib
description: This six-sided prism of baked clay preserves the annals of <span class="tooltip" title=' The King of Assyria from 704-681 BCE. Further Reading '>Sennacherib, who was the king of <span class="tooltip" title=' Assyria was a major Mesopotamian empire which ruled over Palestine in the 8th-7th centuries BCE. Further Reading '>Assyria from 704-681 BCE. It was written around 689 BCE in the <span class="tooltip" title=' Akkadian is a cuneiform (wedge-shaped) language that was used primarily in Mesopotamia between ca. 2,500 and 700 BCE. Further Reading '>Akkadian language (and <span class="tooltip" title=' A wedge-shaped non-alphabetic script that was used for the ancient languages of Akkadian, Sumerian, Babylonian, and Ugaritic. These languages were written on clay tablets, not paper, and the symbols were pressed into the clay with a stylus. Further Reading '>cuneiform script). The text contains the records of Sennacherib's eight military campaigns, and includes a reference to the campaign against <span class="tooltip" title=' A king of Judah who rebelled against the Assyrian king Sennacherib at the end of the 8th century BCE. Further Reading '>Hezekiah, king of <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the southern kingdom during the period of the Divided Kingdom (Israel was the northern kingdom). Further Reading '>Judah, in order to reclaim the tribute that he owed to Assyria. Sennacherib's attack on Jerusalem and Judah is preserved in the biblical books of <span class="tooltip" title=' The biblical books of 1 and 2 Kings portray the history of the Israelite and Judean monarchies from the reign of Solomon until the destruction of the first temple by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. Further Reading '>2 Kings (18:13ff) and <span class="tooltip" title=' Both the name of an Israelite prophet and the name of the book of his prophecies that were included in the Hebrew Bible and consequently in the Christian Old Testament. Further Reading '>Isaiah (36:1ff). According to the Prism, Se…
date: -0704-01-01/-0681-01-01

North of Jerusalem: Nebi Samuel
description: Nebi <span class="tooltip" title=' Samuel was an Israelite judge and prophet who witnessed the beginning of the monarchy under the leadership of Saul. The books of 1 and 2 Samuel deal mainly with the kingships of Saul and David as well as the threat of the Philistines. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Samuel
date: 0400-01-01/2000-01-01

Northern Central Hill
description: These hills are part of the northern <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill of Palestine. This view shows the valley of Liban, which is in the region that was Samaria in antiquity, and the modern village of Sawiya (on the far hill). The modern road follows the ancient route to Shechem. The valley in the center of the photograph creates an open flat space between the mountains, which is naturally used for agriculture (note that the village is located on the ridge of the hill, not to take away from the valuable and rare agricultural land).

Northern Negev Desert: Female Figurine
description: This 12 inch-high figurine depicts a female figure seated on a stool and holding a milk churn on her head. The milk churn is a miniature replica of ceramic churns known from this period. It was found together with several other apparently ritual objects, and that information, combined with the accentuated sexual organs, has led the excavator of the site to suggest that the figure may represent a form of <span class="tooltip" title=' A Canaanite goddess of love and procreation. She had many correlations with the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar and the Phoenician goddess Astarte. Further Reading '>Ashtaroth as the goddess of flocks and milk. Note the decorative red lines that adorn the figure, which are a common feature in many vessels from this age.
date: -4000-01-01/-3100-01-01

Palestine at the end of the 19th century CE: Map
description: This map shows the number of Arab villages on the eve of the arrival of the first Zionist colonies in the late 1800s. As you can see, Palestine was widely and fairly densely populated, which conflicts with Zionist claims about the land being largely empty. Note, however, the less populated areas.
date: 1850-01-01/1900-01-01

Palestine During the Reign of the Hasmonaeans: Map
description: This map shows the expansion of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Also called "Maccabean," the two words refer to the dynasty of independent Jewish rulers in the 2nd-1st centuries BCE (167-63 BCE) who came to power after the Maccabaean Revolt. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Hasmonaean kingdom in the period between 160 and 76 BCE. The capital of the kingdom was always in <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the administrative region around Jerusalem in the late Second Temple and Roman periods. Further Reading '>Judaea, colored light blue. The Hasmonaean ruler Jonathan (160-142 BCE) added the yellow portions; his brother <span class="tooltip" title=' One of the Hasmonaean (Maccabaean) High Priests and military leaders from 142-134 BCE. Further Reading '>Simon (142-134 BCE) added the red portions; Simon's son, <span class="tooltip" title=' The Hasmonaean (Maccabaean) High Priest and political/military leader from 134-104 BCE. Further Reading '>Hyrcanus I (134-104 BCE) added the light blue portions outside of Judaea; Hyrcanus's son, <span class="tooltip" title=' One of the Hasmonaean (Maccabaean) rulers, he was High Priest from 104-103 BCE. Further Reading '>Aristobulus I (104-103 BCE) added the dark purple regions in <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee; and Aristobulus' brother, <span class="tooltip" title=' The first of the Hasmonaean (Maccabaean) rulers to declare himself to be King (as opposed to High Priest). He ruled from 103-76 BCE. Further Reading '>Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BCE), who expanded the kingdom to its greatest extent (the red line), added the light purple areas.
date: -0160-01-01/-0076-01-01

Palestine in the Time of Jesus: Map
description: This map of Israel/Palestine in the time of Jesus shows the locations of Bethlehem and Nazareth, the two central sites associated with the birth of Jesus. Note also the anachronism in the previous statement: the region was not called 'Palestine' until a hundred years later, and was not called 'Israel' until more than 2,000 years later. Nazareth is in <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee and Bethlehem is on the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill, a few miles south of Jerusalem.
date: -0004-01-01/0033-01-01

Pastoral scenery in the hills of Judaea, between Bethlehem and Jerusalem
description: Shepherds and flocks of sheep, as pictured here, are frequent themes in the <span class="tooltip" title=' A Semitic language from the region of Judea and Samaria. Most biblical books were written in this language. In the 19th century the Zionist movement revived it and it became the common language for modern-day Jews living in Israel. Further Reading '>Hebrew Bible – <span class="tooltip" title=' The second king of Israel who founded Jerusalem as a new capital city. David ruled from ca. 1000-970 BCE and was succeeded by his son Solomon. Further Reading '>David, who’s native town was Bethlehem was a Shepherd. Goats, sheep, and shepherds also comprise the socio-economic context in some Gospel stories.

Persian Divisions of Israel/Palestine: Map
description: This maps shows the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lands, people, and Empire east of Mesopotamia (in the regions of modern Iran). It conquered the Near East in the mid-6th century. Map of Cyrus&#39; kingdom | Further Reading '>Persian divisions (also known as provinces, or pahva in Persian) of Israel/Palestine: Samaria, <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the southern kingdom during the period of the Divided Kingdom (Israel was the northern kingdom). Further Reading '>Judah, Idumaea, <span class="tooltip" title=' A coastal city in the southern part of the Land of Israel/Palestine, near Ashkelon Further Reading '>Ashdod, Ammon, and <span class="tooltip" title=' The region in which the Moabites lived in the Iron Age. It is located on the eastern side of the Jordan River. Ammon was to its north and Edom was to its south. Further Reading '>Moab.
date: -0500-01-01/-0323-01-01

Persian Empire: Map
description: This map shows the extent of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lands, people, and Empire east of Mesopotamia (in the regions of modern Iran). It conquered the Near East in the mid-6th century. Map of Cyrus&#39; kingdom | Further Reading '>Persian Empire in 500 BCE. With a capital in Persepolis (down and to the right of the center of the map), they expanded their borders all the way into India in the east and to Egypt, North Africa, and <span class="tooltip" title=' A region just north of Greece where Alexander the Great came from. Further Reading '>Macedonia in the west.
date: -0500-01-01

Phoenicia (Seashore plain cities)
description: This map shows the eastern coastal cities of ancient <span class="tooltip" title=' The region that comprises of the northeastern coast of the Mediterranean (in modern Lebanon and Syria), with the cities of Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos at its core. Further Reading '>Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) and its natural resources. These ancient cities were loosely connected and politically independent, but they shared a common <span class="tooltip" title=' The people who lived in the Land prior to the Israelites (i.e., prior to ca. 1000 BCE). They continued to live in the Seashore Plains for centuries after the rise of David. Further Reading '>Canaanite culture. During the Iron Age (1200–600 BCE), the Phoenicians amassed great wealth from seafaring trade, including cedar, glass, wine, cloth, and a famous purple dye from the Murex sea snail, native to the coastal waters. With a booming economy, they began to establish colonies across the Mediterranean, most important of which was Carthage in North Africa. Over time, <span class="tooltip" title=' A seafaring Semitic people who are most closely associated with the cities of Tyre and Sidon. However, they established colonies throughout the Mediterranean, the most well known of which was Carthage. They are generally credited with the invention of the alphabet. Further Reading '>Phoenician society dissolved with successive waves of invasions by the <span class="tooltip" title=' A major Mesopotamian empire which ruled over Palestine in the late 7th to early 6th centuries BCE. Further Reading '>Babylonians, <span class="tooltip" title=' The lands, people, and Empire east of Mesopotamia (in the regions of modern Iran). It conquered the Near East in the mid-6th century. Map of Cyrus&#39; kingdom | Further Reading '>Persians, and then Greeks. This led to a shift in the center of Phoenician culture towards Carthage, until Rome vanquished the Carthaginians in the Second Punic War (146 BCE). Both the origin and demise of the Phoenicians is debated…

Portrait of an Ottoman soldier
description: This is a portrait of an <span class="tooltip" title=' The Turkish empire from the 16th-20th centuries CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Ottoman soldier. He carries a long rifle and has a pouch for gunpowder. The hat on his head is called a tarboosh.
date: 1700-01-01/1800-01-01

Potter
description: Shown here is a potter working from a shop in the southern part of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill, spinning a wheel to shape clay into a pot. Behind him, one can see finished examples before they are fired in a kiln to remove moisture, hardening the clay into durable ceramic vessels. Today, hand-crafted pottery is made essentially the same way as it was thousands of years ago. The development of ceramic vessels around 6000 BCE revolutionized the transportation of food and water, increased economic prosperity, and led to population growth. Because pottery was everywhere in the ancient world, and portrays various styles over time, scholars can use pottery found during archaeological digs to provide relative dates for layers or “strata” of habitation.

Qitmit: Edomite shrine
description: This artist's rendition of a cult structure at Horvat Qitmit in the eastern <span class="tooltip" title=' The arid region south of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Negev Desert has been identified as being <span class="tooltip" title=' Edom is the region where the tribe of the Edomites lived in the Iron Age. It is located in southern Jordan, east of the Dead Sea and the Negev Desert. In the Persian and Hellenistic periods some of the Edomites appear to have migrated west into the Negev Desert and became the Idumaeans. Further Reading '>Edomite, and as dating to the 7th-6th centuries BCE, on the basis of its pottery. In addition to the pottery, many fragments of clay figures and life-sized statues were also found. The building to the upper right has three rectangular rooms that open to the south. The floors were found to be under a foot of ashes. In front of the building were two major open-air installations: a 3-foot by 4-foot platform standing within a walled court (upper left) and a circular stone enclosure within which was found a stone altar, a 3-foot-wide plaster-lined basin and a 3-foot-deep stone-lined pit. Nothing is known of how these features were used, but the presence of figures and figurines, as well as the ashes in the rectangular rooms, have led scholars to suggest that these structures served religious purposes. Note the open-air characteristics of this structure, which may point to the nomadic nature of its builders/users.
date: -0700-01-01/-0500-01-01

Qumran
description: This photograph of the <span class="tooltip" title=' An archaeological site in the Judaean Desert in which the remains of a Jewish sectarian group were uncovered. Modern scholars tend to identify this group with the Essenes, who lived there between 150 BCE and 68 CE and probably produced the Dead Sea Scrolls. Further Reading '>Qumran settlement, taken from a nearby cave, shows the marl terrace where caves 4 and 5 were found, the settlement, and the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), it is located to the east of the Central Hill, between the modern countries of Israel and Jordan. Further Reading '>Dead Sea in the background.
date: -0150-01-01/0073-01-01