British Mandate of Palestine: Map
description: This map shows the extent of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The British gained control of Palestine during the latter part of World War I. They subsequently oversaw the political affairs within this region until the years just after World War II. This period is known as the British Mandate (1917-1948). Further Reading '>British Mandate of Palestine, which includes Palestine and Transjordan. Note that Syria was a French mandated territory after WWI.
date: 1948-01-01

Jerusalem: Damascus Gate
description: A look from the north at the <span class="tooltip" title=' The capital of modern Syria, just to the north of the Golan Heights. It was also the capital of the Umayyad caliphate (661-750 CE). Further Reading '>Damascus Gate, which is one of the northern gates into the Old City of Jerusalem. The gate that you see at the center of the photograph, as well as the walls to its right and left, are <span class="tooltip" title=' The Turkish empire from the 16th-20th centuries CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Ottoman in date, built by <span class="tooltip" title=' Suleiman I, also known as Suleiman the Magnificent, was the longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He ruled from 1520-1556. He is known for building the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem, which still stand today, among other things. Further Reading '>Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566). To the left and below that gate you can also see a lower entrance into the Old City wall (in the shadow of the bridge coming out of the Damascus Gate). That gate is the Roman-period gate into the Old City, built during the time of <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman Emperor from 117-138 CE. He is responsible for creating a Roman colony Aelia Capitolina near the site of Jerusalem in the wake of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Further Reading '>Hadrian (117-138 CE). Beyond the walls are the buildings of the Muslim Quarter in the Old City of Jerusalem.
date: 0117-01-01/2000-01-01

Jerusalem in the Byzantine period: Map
description: This map of Jerusalem has a circle around the location of the modern <span class="tooltip" title=' The capital of modern Syria, just to the north of the Golan Heights. It was also the capital of the Umayyad caliphate (661-750 CE). Further Reading '>Damascus Gate, one of the northern gates into the Old City of Jerusalem. The modern gate, which was built during the <span class="tooltip" title=' The Turkish empire from the 16th-20th centuries CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Ottoman period, sits atop a Roman gate that was built in the time of <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman Emperor from 117-138 CE. He is responsible for creating a Roman colony Aelia Capitolina near the site of Jerusalem in the wake of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Further Reading '>Hadrian (117-138 CE). We also know that this was the location of the gate from the <span class="tooltip" title=' A 6th century CE mosaic map of Palestine that was found in the floor of a Byzantine church in the modern-day town of Madaba, Jordan. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Madaba map, a map that was found in the mosaic floor of a <span class="tooltip" title=' The name we use today for the Roman Empire in its Christian phase, which is to say, from Constantine until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. In Palestine, Byzantine rule ended with the Islamic conquest (i.e., it lasted from 332-636 CE in our region). Further Reading '>Byzantine church.
date: 0117-01-01/2000-01-01

Palestine at the end of the 19th century CE: Map
description: This map shows the number of Arab villages on the eve of the arrival of the first Zionist colonies in the late 1800s. As you can see, Palestine was widely and fairly densely populated, which conflicts with Zionist claims about the land being largely empty. Note, however, the less populated areas.
date: 1850-01-01/1900-01-01

Madaba: Madaba Map
description: This map was found to be part of the mosaic floor of a 6th century CE church in Madaba, Jordan (east of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), it is located to the east of the Central Hill, between the modern countries of Israel and Jordan. Further Reading '>Dead Sea), and includes this map of <span class="tooltip" title=' The name we use today for the Roman Empire in its Christian phase, which is to say, from Constantine until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. In Palestine, Byzantine rule ended with the Islamic conquest (i.e., it lasted from 332-636 CE in our region). Further Reading '>Byzantine Jerusalem. A broad, column-lined street runs from the north gate south through the center of the city (called a cardo, it is a common feature of Graeco-Roman cities). At its northern end is the <span class="tooltip" title=' The capital of modern Syria, just to the north of the Golan Heights. It was also the capital of the Umayyad caliphate (661-750 CE). Further Reading '>Damascus Gate. The Damascus Gate that we see today was built in the <span class="tooltip" title=' The Turkish empire from the 16th-20th centuries CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Ottoman period, but archaeologists have found a Hadrianic Gate beneath it (117-134 CE), and the <span class="tooltip" title=' A 6th century CE mosaic map of Palestine that was found in the floor of a Byzantine church in the modern-day town of Madaba, Jordan. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Madaba Map, shown here, depicts its existence in the 6th century CE. It is interesting to note that the Arabic name for the Damascus Gate is Bab el-'Amud ('Gate of the Column'). Note the depiction of the northern gate and column in the Madaba Map.
date: 0500-01-01/0600-01-01

Jerusalem: Old City
description: This photograph shows a street of the Old City of Jerusalem today. People still use the same layout as <span class="tooltip" title=' Suleiman I, also known as Suleiman the Magnificent, was the longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He ruled from 1520-1556. He is known for building the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem, which still stand today, among other things. Further Reading '>Suleiman's city.
date: 1500-01-01/2000-01-01

Portrait of an Ottoman soldier
description: This is a portrait of an <span class="tooltip" title=' The Turkish empire from the 16th-20th centuries CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Ottoman soldier. He carries a long rifle and has a pouch for gunpowder. The hat on his head is called a tarboosh.
date: 1700-01-01/1800-01-01

Rome: The Arch of Titus - detail of the interior
description: This photograph shows details of the relief carving under the Arch of <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman general during the First Jewish Revolt and, later, the Roman emperor. He is especially well known for his role in the conquest of Jerusalem in 70 CE. A triumphal arch erected in Rome to commemorate his victories depicts Jewish captives and the menorah that was housed in the Temple in Jerusalem. Further Reading '>Titus, located near the eastern entrance to the Forum in Rome. The arch was erected by emperor Domitian, Titus' brother, to honor and commemorate the defeat of the Jews and the capture and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. Depicted on the relief is the triumphal procession after Titus' return to Rome, which included the golden menorah and other implements that were taken from the Temple.
date: 0070-01-01

Jerusalem: Ecce Homo Arch
description: This picture shows the Ecce Homo arch, which was the large central arch of <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman Emperor from 117-138 CE. He is responsible for creating a Roman colony Aelia Capitolina near the site of Jerusalem in the wake of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Further Reading '>Hadrian's east forum. It stands over the Via Dolorosa in the Old City of Jerusalem outside the Sisters of Zion Convent. Note how more modern buildings have been built around and on top of it and have incorporated the arch into their architecture.
date: 0117-01-01/2000-01-01

Jerusalem: Lithograph of the Ecce Homo Arch
description: This 19th century lithograph shows two of three arches (there would have been another small arch on the right side of the large arch), which is typical of arches built during <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman Emperor from 117-138 CE. He is responsible for creating a Roman colony Aelia Capitolina near the site of Jerusalem in the wake of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Further Reading '>Hadrian's time. Arches built during <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish king of Edumaean descent who ruled Palestine under Roman authority from 40-4 BCE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Herod's time were typically double arches. In addition, the northern pier of the arch was found to sit on bedrock, with pavement running up against it (so the pavement must have been laid after the arch was built) and the pavement was found to have also lie directly over a huge cistern that <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish historian from whom we know much about life in 1st century CE Palestine. His works include a history of the first Jewish revolt against the Romans, which began in 66 CE, entitled The Jewish War Further Reading '>Josephus said was open at the time of the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. So the arch must have been built afterwards. The conclusion? This lithograph depicts the arch that Hadrian built; some scholars believe it led to the east forum of the city.
date: 1800-01-01/1900-01-01

Rome: Judaea Capta coin
description: This bronze coin, which was minted in Rome in 71 CE after the Romans captured Jerusalem, features the profile of the Emperor <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman emperor from 69-79 CE. Prior to this he was the general in charge of the Roman response to the first Jewish revolt. Further Reading '>Vespasian on the recto (left), and, on the verso (right), a Roman soldier standing over a mourning woman who symbolizes the defeated <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the administrative region around Jerusalem in the late Second Temple and Roman periods. Further Reading '>Judaea. Between them is a palm tree. The inscription around these two figures reads IUDEA CAPTA, Latin for 'captured Judaea.'
date: 0071-01-01

Beth Shean/Scythopolis: Tyche
description: This portrait—part of a mosaic floor found in the archaeological excavations at Beit-Shean—depicts Tyche (also known as Fortuna), the goddess of fortune. She wears a crown in the shape of the city walls and holds a horn full with fruit and vegetables representing the well-being of the city.
date: -0067-01-01/0300-01-01

London, England: Edward Gibbon
description: Edward Gibbon, pictured here, was an English historian and a member of the British Parliament. He wrote a 6-volume work called The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire between 1776-1788. Although he was widely criticized for treating Christianity as a historical phenomenon and being critical of Christianity's negative effects on the Roman Empire, his work was widely praised for its style of prose and its use of primary sources. It was one of the most influential works on ancient Rome for over 100 years.
date: 1776-01-01/1788-01-01

Hammat Tiberias: the synagogue
description: This is a photograph of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Literally "to come together" in Greek, synagogues were Jewish religious and social institutions in the late Second Temple Period that came to replace the Temple as the Jewish place of worship after 70 CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>synagogue of the ancient city of Tiberias. Several synagogues were built on this site over the centuries; much of the architecture that you see here dates to the 5th-8th centuries CE. The mosaic floor that you will see in other photographs dates to the 4th century CE.
date: 0300-01-01/0900-01-01

Rome: Julius Caesar
description: <span class="tooltip" title=" A Roman General, statesman, Consul, author, and eventually dictator. Julius Caesar's reign marks the historical transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire. He was famously assassinated on the Ides of March (that is, March 15), 44 BCE. Further Reading ">Julius Caesar was a Roman general, statesman, Consul, and author. Over the course of his military career he gained unmatched military power. When the Senate ordered him to lay down his arms and return to Rome, he refused and instead led a legion back to Rome, illegally entering Roman territory under arms. A civil war resulted, from which Caesar emerged as the unrivaled leader. This set a precedent for a sole leader to rule the Roman empire (previous to this Rome had been governed by a republic), and Julius Caesar's reign marks the historical transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire. He was famously assassinated on the Ides of March (that is, March 15), 44 BCE.
date: -0100-01-01/-0044-01-01

Beth Shean/Scythopolis: aerial view
description: During the <span class="tooltip" title=' Refers both to a period (i.e., from Alexander the Great to the Romans, which is 332 - 64 BCE in our region) and the Greek culture that Alexander brought. Further Reading '>Hellenistic period (332-63 BCE) the city of Beth Shean enjoyed a revival and came to be known as Scythopolis, or 'City of the Scythians', perhaps as a result of a unit of the Scythian cavalry in the army of Ptolemy II Philadelphus. During the 2nd century BCE it was also known as Nyssa, after the nurse of the god Dionysus, as legend says that she was buried here. The city fell into Jewish hands when it was conquered by the <span class="tooltip" title=' Also called "Maccabean," the two words refer to the dynasty of independent Jewish rulers in the 2nd-1st centuries BCE (167-63 BCE) who came to power after the Maccabaean Revolt. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Hasmonaean king John Hyrcanus (134-104 BCE) but fell to Rome in 63 BCE. <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish historian from whom we know much about life in 1st century CE Palestine. His works include a history of the first Jewish revolt against the Romans, which began in 66 CE, entitled The Jewish War Further Reading '>Josephus mentions Scythopolis as the capital of the Decapolis (the league of 10 cities). In this picture you can see the theater, which seated 8,000, the long colonnaded main street, and other public buildings.
date: -0400-01-01/2000-01-01

Jerusalem: Yitzhak Rabin
description: This is a photograph of Yitzhak Rabin, who was the Israeli Prime Minister who signed the Oslo Peace Accords with Yassir Arafat (the Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization) in 1993. He was assassinated in 1995 by a Israeli man who was opposed to the Oslo Accords.
date: 1922-01-01/1995-01-01

Washington, DC: The Oslo Accords - Yitzhak Rabin, Bill Clinton, and Yassir Arafat
description: This famous photograph shows the handshake between Yitzhak Rabin, the Prime Minister of Israel, and Yassir Arafat, the Chairman of the Palestinian Liberation Organization, after signing the Declaration of Principles of the Oslo Peace Accords at the White House in Washington, D.C.
date: 1993-01-01

Jerusalem: Dome of the Rock - fish-eye view of the interior
description: This fish-eye photograph was taken inside the <span class="tooltip" title=' "Kubbat ash-Sakhra" in Arabic, this is the golden-domed shrine that is located on the Temple Mount (or Haram esh-Sharif) in Jerusalem. It was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE. Further Reading '>Dome of the Rock. Above you can see the intricate artistic styling that decorates the underside of the dome; below you can see the section of bedrock around which the building was built. Muslims believe that this rock was the place from which the Prophet <span class="tooltip" title=' The founder of Islam, He came from Mecca, a caravan city in the Arabian peninsula, ca. 571-632 CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Muhammad left on his Night Journey.
date: 0687-01-01/2000-01-01

Hammat Tiberias: the synagogue mosaic floor - central panel close-up
description: This photograph shows a close-up of the figure at the center of the zodiac that is in the central panel of the mosaic floor in the fourth century <span class="tooltip" title=' Literally "to come together" in Greek, synagogues were Jewish religious and social institutions in the late Second Temple Period that came to replace the Temple as the Jewish place of worship after 70 CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>synagogue at Hammat Tiberias. This very fine mosaic shows a depiction of the sun god Helios riding his chariot above the sea. His right arm is raised in blessing and in his left arm he holds the orb of the universe, an emblem of his sovereign power.
date: 0300-01-01/0400-01-01

Beit Alpha: the synagogue mosaic
description: This photograph shows a close-up of one of the panels of the mosaic floor in the 6th century CE <span class="tooltip" title=' Literally "to come together" in Greek, synagogues were Jewish religious and social institutions in the late Second Temple Period that came to replace the Temple as the Jewish place of worship after 70 CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>synagogue at Beit Alpha. The panel tells the story of the Akedah, or the binding of Isaac (Genesis 22:1-19). At the left two servants stand with a beast of burden. At the right the altar blazes up, while Abraham (whose name appears in <span class="tooltip" title=' A Semitic language from the region of Judea and Samaria. Most biblical books were written in this language. In the 19th century the Zionist movement revived it and it became the common language for modern-day Jews living in Israel. Further Reading '>Hebrew above and to the left of his head) holds the knife in his right hand and Isaac (also labeled in Hebrew) in his left hand. In the center a ram stands tethered to a bush. The Hebrew above its head reads, 'And behold, a ram' (Genesis 22:13). Above the bush the hand of the angel of the Lord emerges from a cloud and the command 'Do not send forth [your hand]' (Genesis 22:12) appears below the hand. Underneath the main panel, between the lion and the ram, is a dual language inscription, in Greek and <span class="tooltip" title=' A Semitic language from the region of modern-day Syria, which became the common language in the Near East from the Persian Period onwards. The Biblical books of Ezra and Daniel have major Aramaic portions. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Aramaic. The first commemorates the artists who made the inscription and the second refers to the donations made toward its costs. The Aramaic inscription dates the event to the days of 'King Justin.' Two emperors by that name reigned in the sixth century.
date: 0500-01-01/0600-01-01

Jerusalem: Temple Mount and Dome of the Rock
description: This aerial view of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Also known as the Haram esh-Sharif ("Noble Sanctuary" in Arabic), it is the site where the Jewish Temple stood and where the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque now stand. The massive Temple Mount compound that exists today was built by Herod the Great in the late 1st century BCE and early 1st century CE. Further Reading '>Temple Mount, which is looking west, shows not just the massive Temple Mount complex with its retaining walls and the <span class="tooltip" title=' "Kubbat ash-Sakhra" in Arabic, this is the golden-domed shrine that is located on the Temple Mount (or Haram esh-Sharif) in Jerusalem. It was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE. Further Reading '>Dome of the Rock, but also the Al Aqsa Mosque (to the left, at the south end of the Temple Mount complex). Note the flat surface of huge stone slabs that makes up the Temple Mount, which was an artificial creation of <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish king of Edumaean descent who ruled Palestine under Roman authority from 40-4 BCE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>King Herod and his engineers. Beyond the Temple Mount is the Old City of Jerusalem.
date: 0687-01-01/2000-01-01

Rome: The Arch of Titus - overview
description: This photograph shows the Arch of <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman general during the First Jewish Revolt and, later, the Roman emperor. He is especially well known for his role in the conquest of Jerusalem in 70 CE. A triumphal arch erected in Rome to commemorate his victories depicts Jewish captives and the menorah that was housed in the Temple in Jerusalem. Further Reading '>Titus, which was erected near the eastern entrance to the Forum of the city of Rome to commemorate Titus's defeat of the Jews and the taking of Jerusalem in 70 CE. The inscription at the top reads 'The Roman Senate and People (dedicate this) to the divine Titus Vespasianus <span class="tooltip" title=' Born Gaius Octavius in 63 BCE, Caesar Augustus lived until 14 CE. He was the adopted son of Julius Caesar and eventually succeeded him as Caesar of Rome (at which time he took the name "Augustus"). He then became the Emperor of Rome, reigning from 27 BCE-14 CE. Further Reading '>Augustus, son of the divine <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman emperor from 69-79 CE. Prior to this he was the general in charge of the Roman response to the first Jewish revolt. Further Reading '>Vespasian.'
date: 0070-01-01

Jerusalem: Dome of the Rock
description: This photograph shows the <span class="tooltip" title=' "Kubbat ash-Sakhra" in Arabic, this is the golden-domed shrine that is located on the Temple Mount (or Haram esh-Sharif) in Jerusalem. It was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE. Further Reading '>Dome of the Rock (Arabic: "Kubbat as Sakhra") looking east. For centuries it was misnamed the Mosque of <span class="tooltip" title=' Omar, also known as Umar, was the second caliph in early Islam. He conquered Jerusalem in 638 CE. Further Reading '>Omar. Omar did erect a simple wooden mosque at the site, but that was replaced by his successor <span class="tooltip" title=' Literally meaning "Successor," it was the title of the "rightly-guided" leaders of the Islamic forces after Muhammad died in 632 CE. Further Reading '>Caliph Abd al-Malik, who commissioned the present octagonal shrine, which was begun in 687 CE and completed in 691 CE. In the background, to the right, you can see the <span class="tooltip" title=' A hill immediately east of the Old City of Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. The Jehoshaphat Valley runs between the Mount of Olives and Jerusalem. Further Reading '>Mount of Olives with its ancient Jewish cemetery on the slopes. The distant bell tower is from the Russian Monastery of the Ascension and the onion-shaped domes just to the left of the Dome of the Rock belong to the Russian Church of St. Mary Magdalene, built in the 19th century. In the forefront are houses of the Old City of Jerusalem.
date: 0687-01-01/2000-01-01

Jerusalem: Dome of the Rock
description: This close-up of the <span class="tooltip" title=' "Kubbat ash-Sakhra" in Arabic, this is the golden-domed shrine that is located on the Temple Mount (or Haram esh-Sharif) in Jerusalem. It was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE. Further Reading '>Dome of the Rock shows the beauty and riches of its present decoration. It was commissioned by Abd al-Malik in 687 CE and completed in 691 CE. <span class="tooltip" title=' Suleiman I, also known as Suleiman the Magnificent, was the longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He ruled from 1520-1556. He is known for building the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem, which still stand today, among other things. Further Reading '>Suleiman the Magnificent carried out extensive restorations of the building in the 16th century, but the gold sheathing had not survived the Middle Ages. An unattractive lead dome crowned the shrine until modern restorations began in 1958, when the building received its present golden-colored roof of bronze-aluminum alloy.
date: 0687-01-01/2000-01-01

Jerusalem: Temple Mount - phases of the Sakhra
description: This 3-dimensional reconstruction of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Also known as the Haram esh-Sharif ("Noble Sanctuary" in Arabic), it is the site where the Jewish Temple stood and where the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque now stand. The massive Temple Mount compound that exists today was built by Herod the Great in the late 1st century BCE and early 1st century CE. Further Reading '>Temple Mount shows the various stages of construction, as well as the piece of bedrock (the Sakhra) that sits at the center of the <span class="tooltip" title=' "Kubbat ash-Sakhra" in Arabic, this is the golden-domed shrine that is located on the Temple Mount (or Haram esh-Sharif) in Jerusalem. It was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE. Further Reading '>Dome of the Rock (the Kubbat as Sakhra).
date: -0920-01-01/0700-01-01

Jerusalem: Temple Mount, Dome of the Rock, and Al Aqsa Mosque
description: This photograph of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Also known as the Haram esh-Sharif ("Noble Sanctuary" in Arabic), it is the site where the Jewish Temple stood and where the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque now stand. The massive Temple Mount compound that exists today was built by Herod the Great in the late 1st century BCE and early 1st century CE. Further Reading '>Temple Mount shows the relationship of the <span class="tooltip" title=' "Kubbat ash-Sakhra" in Arabic, this is the golden-domed shrine that is located on the Temple Mount (or Haram esh-Sharif) in Jerusalem. It was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE. Further Reading '>Dome of the Rock (the Kubbat as-Sakhra) to the <span class="tooltip" title=' The only mosque on the Temple Mount/Haram esh-Sharif. It sits on the southwest corner of the platform and has a gray dome. Further Reading '>Al-Aqsa Mosque. Together they make up the Haram esh-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary), the Islamic sanctuary created in the days of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The first Islamic dynasty after the period of the caliphs (661-750 CE). Their capital was in Damascus. Further Reading '>Umayyad Dynasty (in the 7th century CE).
date: 0687-01-01/2000-01-01

Jerusalem: Dome of the Rock
description: This photograph of the <span class="tooltip" title=' "Kubbat ash-Sakhra" in Arabic, this is the golden-domed shrine that is located on the Temple Mount (or Haram esh-Sharif) in Jerusalem. It was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE. Further Reading '>Dome of the Rock shows its octagonal structure and its golden dome. Beneath the dome, at the center of the structure is the bedrock called the Sakhra. For centuries it was misnamed the Mosque of <span class="tooltip" title=' Omar, also known as Umar, was the second caliph in early Islam. He conquered Jerusalem in 638 CE. Further Reading '>Omar. Omar did erect a simple wooden mosque at the site, but that was replaced by his successor <span class="tooltip" title=' Literally meaning "Successor," it was the title of the "rightly-guided" leaders of the Islamic forces after Muhammad died in 632 CE. Further Reading '>Caliph Abd al-Malik, who commissioned the present octagonal shrine, which was begun in 687 CE and completed in 691 CE.
date: 0687-01-01/2000-01-01

Jerusalem: Dome of the Rock and the Dome of the Spirits
description: This photograph, taken from the top of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Also known as the Haram esh-Sharif ("Noble Sanctuary" in Arabic), it is the site where the Jewish Temple stood and where the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque now stand. The massive Temple Mount compound that exists today was built by Herod the Great in the late 1st century BCE and early 1st century CE. Further Reading '>Temple Mount platform, shows the <span class="tooltip" title=' "Kubbat ash-Sakhra" in Arabic, this is the golden-domed shrine that is located on the Temple Mount (or Haram esh-Sharif) in Jerusalem. It was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE. Further Reading '>Dome of the Rock in the background and the Dome of the Spirits in the foreground. The Dome of the Spirits is one of several lesser shrines that dot the top of the Temple Mount platform. According to Muslim accounts this small cupola marks the place where <span class="tooltip" title=' The founder of Islam, He came from Mecca, a caravan city in the Arabian peninsula, ca. 571-632 CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Mohammad conversed with the earlier <span class="tooltip" title=' A Semitic language from the region of Judea and Samaria. Most biblical books were written in this language. In the 19th century the Zionist movement revived it and it became the common language for modern-day Jews living in Israel. Further Reading '>Hebrew and Christian prophets. It is commonly called the Dome of the Spirits because this is also where Mohammad will summon the souls of the faithful on Judgment Day. There is an intriguing alternative interpretation of this smaller dome. It has another name: Dome of the Tablets, and it sits due west of the Golden Gate (the eastern entrance into the Second Temple's courts). This name and location has led some to suggest that it memorializes the site of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The holiest place in a temple. In the Jerusalem Temple the phrase refers to the room where it …
date: 0750-01-01/2000-01-01

Hammat Tiberias: the synagogue mosaic floor - top panel
description: This photograph shows the upper panel of the mosaic floor in the center of the fourth century <span class="tooltip" title=' Literally "to come together" in Greek, synagogues were Jewish religious and social institutions in the late Second Temple Period that came to replace the Temple as the Jewish place of worship after 70 CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>synagogue at Hammat Tiberias. It is the last panel that a worshipper would see/walk across as he walked toward the standing Torah shrine on the southern wall of the synagogue. In this panel we see the main doors of the Temple in Jerusalem, which may resemble also the ark of the Torah in the synagogue, flanked by two 7-branched menorahs. In the area below each menorah are a lulav (a palm branch bound with myrtle and willow) and an etrog (a citron), both ritual objects important for the festival of Sukkot, as well as a shofar (ram's horn) and an incense shovel.
date: 0300-01-01/0400-01-01

Jerusalem: Dome of the Rock - interior view
description: This is a photograph of the interior of the dome that sits on the <span class="tooltip" title=' "Kubbat ash-Sakhra" in Arabic, this is the golden-domed shrine that is located on the Temple Mount (or Haram esh-Sharif) in Jerusalem. It was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE. Further Reading '>Dome of the Rock. It was planned as a deliberate imitation of the vault over the Anastasis of the Holy Sepulchre; even the size of this hemisphere is within a few feet of the Sepulchre's dome. It was the <span class="tooltip" title=' Literally meaning "Successor," it was the title of the "rightly-guided" leaders of the Islamic forces after Muhammad died in 632 CE. Further Reading '>caliph's intention to raise a building that would be in the architectural tradition established by <span class="tooltip" title=' Roman emperor from 306-337 CE. He recognized Christianity as the official religion of the empire and moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul). Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Constantine but would far outshine its Christian predecessor.
date: 0687-01-01/2000-01-01

Jerusalem: Dome of the Rock - interior view
description: This photograph of the interior of the <span class="tooltip" title=' "Kubbat ash-Sakhra" in Arabic, this is the golden-domed shrine that is located on the Temple Mount (or Haram esh-Sharif) in Jerusalem. It was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE. Further Reading '>Dome of the Rock shows the symmetry of the architectural plan and the lavish geometric decoration adorning the walls and arches. Beneath the dome, at the center of the structure (just on the other side of the brown wooden barrier) is the bedrock called the Sakhra. In Islamic tradition and belief, this is the last place that the Prophet <span class="tooltip" title=' The founder of Islam, He came from Mecca, a caravan city in the Arabian peninsula, ca. 571-632 CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Muhammad touched the earth before he was taken on his Night Journey. Much of the artistry of the 7th-century <span class="tooltip" title=' The name we use today for the Roman Empire in its Christian phase, which is to say, from Constantine until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. In Palestine, Byzantine rule ended with the Islamic conquest (i.e., it lasted from 332-636 CE in our region). Further Reading '>Byzantine craftsmen is preserved here from the original building period, with major supplements and restorations by the Crusaders in the 12th century and <span class="tooltip" title=' Suleiman I, also known as Suleiman the Magnificent, was the longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He ruled from 1520-1556. He is known for building the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem, which still stand today, among other things. Further Reading '>Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century. For centuries the Dome of the Rock was misnamed the Mosque of <span class="tooltip" title=' Omar, also known as Umar, was the second caliph in early Islam. He conquered Jerusalem in 638 CE. Further Reading '>Omar. Omar did erect a simple wooden mosque at the site, but that was replaced by his s…
date: 0687-01-01/2000-01-01

Hammat Tiberias: the synagogue mosaic floor - central panel
description: This photograph shows the central panel of the mosaic floor in the fourth century <span class="tooltip" title=' Literally "to come together" in Greek, synagogues were Jewish religious and social institutions in the late Second Temple Period that came to replace the Temple as the Jewish place of worship after 70 CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>synagogue at Hammat Tiberias. The stones running through the middle of it are a later wall that was built in such a way as to destroy the mosaic. At the center of the mosaic floor (the section that the wall runs through) is a zodiac with figures corresponding to the 12 months of the year. At the four corners are figural depictions of the four seasons. The arrow points to the figure in the middle of the zodiac, which is the sun god Helios. In the panel above the zodiac there is a depiction of the Temple in Jerusalem and Temple implements. Underneath the zodiac is a Greek inscription flanked by two lions, honoring the donors of the synagogue.
date: 0300-01-01/0400-01-01

Nazareth: Church of the Annunciation
description: This photograph of the modern city of Nazareth, in Lower <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee, shows the Church of the Annunciation, which was originally built in the 4th century CE by Helen, the mother of the emperor <span class="tooltip" title=' Roman emperor from 306-337 CE. He recognized Christianity as the official religion of the empire and moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul). Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Constantine. It stands over the place where, according to Catholic tradition, Mary stood when an angel announced to her that she was pregnant with Jesus as a result of God's divine intervention. The current building is from the 1960s but it stands over archaeological remains of a Crusader church and other ancient structures.
date: 0350-01-01/2000-01-01

Jerusalem: The Western Wall/Wailing Wall
description: This photograph shows the proximity of the Western Wall (sometimes called the Wailing Wall) to the <span class="tooltip" title=' "Kubbat ash-Sakhra" in Arabic, this is the golden-domed shrine that is located on the Temple Mount (or Haram esh-Sharif) in Jerusalem. It was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE. Further Reading '>Dome of the Rock. The Western Wall, at the center of the photograph, is the western wall of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Also known as the Haram esh-Sharif ("Noble Sanctuary" in Arabic), it is the site where the Jewish Temple stood and where the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque now stand. The massive Temple Mount compound that exists today was built by Herod the Great in the late 1st century BCE and early 1st century CE. Further Reading '>Temple Mount that was built by <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish king of Edumaean descent who ruled Palestine under Roman authority from 40-4 BCE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Herod the Great and on top of which stood the Jewish Temple prior to 70 CE. It is often considered to be one of the holiest sites in Judaism. Above and to the left is the Dome of the Rock, which stands over a section of bedrock that Muslims believe is that last place that the Prophet <span class="tooltip" title=' The founder of Islam, He came from Mecca, a caravan city in the Arabian peninsula, ca. 571-632 CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Muhammad stood before embarking on his Night Journey. It is usually considered to be the third holiest site in Islam. The gray dome to the right is the Al Aqsa Mosque, which sits at the southern end of the Temple Mount. In the background is the <span class="tooltip" title=' A hill immediately east of the Old City of Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. The Jehoshaphat Valley runs between the Mount of Olives and Jerusalem. Further Reading '>Mount of Olives.
date: -0067-01-01/2000-01-01

Jerusalem: Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Dome of the Rock
description: This photograph, looking east, shows the proximity of the <span class="tooltip" title=" Commissioned to be built in Jerusalem by Constantine's mother Helen in 326 CE, ostensibly over the sites of Jesus' crucifixion and burial, it became the center of Byzantine Jerusalem. Further Reading ">Church of the Holy Sepulchre (the two domes in the foreground) to the <span class="tooltip" title=' "Kubbat ash-Sakhra" in Arabic, this is the golden-domed shrine that is located on the Temple Mount (or Haram esh-Sharif) in Jerusalem. It was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in 691 CE. Further Reading '>Dome of the Rock (in the background). The <span class="tooltip" title=' A hill immediately east of the Old City of Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. The Jehoshaphat Valley runs between the Mount of Olives and Jerusalem. Further Reading '>Mount of Olives and the Arab village of Et Tur (the smaller of the two towers on the hilltop) is in the distance. The large dome within the complex of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is the Anastasis ('raising up'), and underneath it is the traditional location of Jesus' tomb. The smaller dome is over the main altar in the church's basilica and the place that many Christians believed was the 'navel of the earth'. The long rectangular roofed structure beyond them that looks a bit like the peaked roof a barn or a warehouse is the Chapel of St. Helena. To the right of the Anastasis Dome is a square, bulky tower from the period of the <span class="tooltip" title=' A series of nine Christian military expeditions against the Muslims (primarily) between 1099 and 1272 CE. They are best known for Christian campaigns to the "Holy Land" to rid it of the ruling Muslims. Further Reading '>Crusades; to its right is the thin and tall minaret tower of the Mosque of <span class="tooltip" title=' Omar, also known as Umar, was the second caliph in early Islam. He conquered Jerusalem in 638 CE. Further Reading '>Omar; just behind it is the whitish tall, square an…
date: 0323-01-01/2000-01-01

The Vatican: Codex Vaticanus
description: This photograph shows a page from the Codex Vaticanus, which was created in the 4th century CE and is arguably the most important ancient manuscript of the Greek Bible. Codex Vaticanus originally contained both the Old and the New Testaments, but only 759 of the original 820 pages have survived. However, it is an extremely high quality text and it serves as the basis for a number of authoritative editions of the Bible. It was acquired by the Vatican in the 15th century CE.
date: 0300-01-01/0400-01-01

St. Catherine's Monastery: Codex Sinaiticus
description: This photograph shows a page from the Codex Sinaiticus, which was created in the 4th century CE. The extant pages (400 of an estimated 730) contain the oldest complete manuscript of the <span class="tooltip" title=' A corpus of 27 books from the 1st-2nd centuries CE, mostly written by Jewish followers of Jesus, that eventually became the foundational text of Christianity. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>New Testament. It was found at St. Katherine's Monastery in the <span class="tooltip" title=' A relatively large desert south of the Land of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Sinai Desert and procured under controversial circumstances by Konstantin von Tischendorf in the 19th century.
date: 0300-01-01/0400-01-01

Roman Empire (100 BCE - 150 CE): Map
description: This map shows the gradual expansion of the Roman Empire around the Mediterranean between the years 100 BCE and 150 CE. Red areas indicate Roman control in 100 BCE; yellow areas indicate the extent of the empire at the time of <span class="tooltip" title=" A Roman General, statesman, Consul, author, and eventually dictator. Julius Caesar's reign marks the historical transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire. He was famously assassinated on the Ides of March (that is, March 15), 44 BCE. Further Reading ">Julius Caesar's death in 44 BCE; green areas indicate areas annexed by <span class="tooltip" title=' Born Gaius Octavius in 63 BCE, Caesar Augustus lived until 14 CE. He was the adopted son of Julius Caesar and eventually succeeded him as Caesar of Rome (at which time he took the name "Augustus"). He then became the Emperor of Rome, reigning from 27 BCE-14 CE. Further Reading '>Augustus (27-14 BCE); and blue areas indicate regions annexed between the death of Augustus (14 BCE) and 150 CE.
date: -0100-01-01/0150-01-01

Palestine in the Time of Jesus: Map
description: This map of Israel/Palestine in the time of Jesus shows the locations of Bethlehem and Nazareth, the two central sites associated with the birth of Jesus. Note also the anachronism in the previous statement: the region was not called 'Palestine' until a hundred years later, and was not called 'Israel' until more than 2,000 years later. Nazareth is in <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee and Bethlehem is on the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill, a few miles south of Jerusalem.
date: -0004-01-01/0033-01-01

Galilee: Map
description: This map shows the region of <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee. The circle is around the city of Nazareth, where Jesus grew up. The arrows point to the places that Jesus went during his ministry: toward <span class="tooltip" title=' A Phoenician city on the coast of modern day Lebanon. It and the city of Sidon were the two main Phoenician cities in antiquity. Further Reading '>Tyre and <span class="tooltip" title=' A Phoenician city on the coast of modern day Lebanon. It and the city of Tyre were the two main Phoenician cities in antiquity. Further Reading '>Sidon, on the <span class="tooltip" title=' A seafaring Semitic people who are most closely associated with the cities of Tyre and Sidon. However, they established colonies throughout the Mediterranean, the most well known of which was Carthage. They are generally credited with the invention of the alphabet. Further Reading '>Phoenician coast, and around the <span class="tooltip" title=' A lake located in Lower Galilee, in the north of the Land of Israel/Palestine. The Jordan River feeds it and flows out of it. Further Reading '>Sea of Galilee.
date: -0004-01-01/0033-01-01

Sea of Galilee
description: This photograph shows the landscape around the Sea of <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee, where Jesus spent nearly all of his life.
date: -0004-01-01/0033-01-01

Bethlehem: Church of the Nativity
description: This photograph shows the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, originally commissioned in the 4th century CE by the emperor <span class="tooltip" title=' Roman emperor from 306-337 CE. He recognized Christianity as the official religion of the empire and moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul). Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Constantine and built under the supervision of his mother Helen over a cave that they identified as the site of the birth of Jesus. The current building dates to the days of the emperor Justinian in the 6th century CE. The front of the church is marked by a large apse (to the right of the building with the red roof); the church itself has a shape of a cross. The big open square in front of the church (with all of the cars) is called Manger Square and is the place where people from all over the world gather to hear the mass on Christmas Eve.
date: 0350-01-01/2000-01-01

Tiberias: aerial view
description: Tiberias was founded by <span class="tooltip" title=' The son of Herod the Great that was given the northern regions of Galilee and Peraea when his father died in 4 BCE. He ruled them until 39 CE. He also built the city of Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee and is the Herod that is mentioned in the New Testament gospels Further Reading '>Herod Antipas in 20 CE and has been continuously occupied since then. It is located on the west shore of the Sea of <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee. At the top of the picture one sees the modern city of Tiberias which sits on the ruins of the Arab town. At the bottom of the picture is the Tiberian neighborhood known as Hammat Tiberias, which developed around the mineral springs that are located there. Between Hammat Tiberias and the modern city one can see an open, green space. That was the location of the Roman and then <span class="tooltip" title=' The name we use today for the Roman Empire in its Christian phase, which is to say, from Constantine until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. In Palestine, Byzantine rule ended with the Islamic conquest (i.e., it lasted from 332-636 CE in our region). Further Reading '>Byzantine cities. In 1033 CE an earthquake destroyed the Byzantine city and the Arab rulers rebuilt it to the north. At the top the hills of Upper Galilee are visible.

Jerusalem: Model of the Antonia Fortress
description: This scale model of Second Temple Jerusalem resides at the Israel Museum in modern Jerusalem. This particular photograph is looking from north to south at the Antonia Fortress, which sat at the north edge of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Also known as the Haram esh-Sharif ("Noble Sanctuary" in Arabic), it is the site where the Jewish Temple stood and where the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque now stand. The massive Temple Mount compound that exists today was built by Herod the Great in the late 1st century BCE and early 1st century CE. Further Reading '>Temple Mount complex (the Temple building of which can be seen behind it). The Antonia Fortress was a military barracks that was built by <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish king of Edumaean descent who ruled Palestine under Roman authority from 40-4 BCE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>King Herod and was used to garrison Roman troops when <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the administrative region around Jerusalem in the late Second Temple and Roman periods. Further Reading '>Judaea was ruled by a Roman procurator.
date: -0019-01-01/0070-01-01

Jordan River: north of the Sea of Galilee
description: The main source of the <span class="tooltip" title=' A river that runs south from its source on the slopes of Mt. Hermon to the Sea of Galilee and south again from the Sea of Galilee through the Jordan River Valley to the Dead Sea. Further Reading '>Jordan River is located near Banias (Caesarea Philippi), 1,312 feet above sea level. It drops down into the <span class="tooltip" title=' A valley in Upper Galilee, to the west of the Golan Heights. Today it is a rich agricultural valley surrounded by steep heights to the east and west; however, in antiquity it was a swamp. Further Reading '>Huleh Valley and then down to the Sea of <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee and from there down to the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), it is located to the east of the Central Hill, between the modern countries of Israel and Jordan. Further Reading '>Dead Sea (1,300 feet below sea level). This view of the upper Jordan River (above the <span class="tooltip" title=' A lake located in Lower Galilee, in the north of the Land of Israel/Palestine. The Jordan River feeds it and flows out of it. Further Reading '>Sea of Galilee) shows both the size and turbulence of the water and the more mountainous terrain of this part of the country.

Jerusalem: Model of the Second Temple
description: This scale model of Second Temple Jerusalem resides at the Israel Museum in modern Jerusalem. This particular photograph is looking west and shows a reconstruction of the Second Temple itself (after <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish king of Edumaean descent who ruled Palestine under Roman authority from 40-4 BCE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>King Herod's renovations). The <span class="tooltip" title=' The holiest place in a temple. In the Jerusalem Temple the phrase refers to the room where it was believed that God’s intangible presence dwelt. Further Reading '>Holy of Holies would have been at the far west of the main Temple building, behind the large doorway. The open-air altar stood in the inner court, between the large gate (known as the Gate of Nikanor) and the steps that are visible at the lower center of the photo. The walls in the immediate foreground (at the bottom of the photo) would have separated the Court of the Gentiles (where anybody was allowed) from the Court of the Women (where only Jews were allowed).
date: -0019-01-01/0070-01-01

Jerusalem: phases of the ancient city walls
description: This image shows the growth of Jerusalem's walls and fortifications over the centuries of the <span class="tooltip" title=" 519 BCE - 70 CE ">Second Temple period (516BCE – 70CE). The first set of walls (in blue) shows the perimeter of the city during <span class="tooltip" title=' Also called "Maccabean," the two words refer to the dynasty of independent Jewish rulers in the 2nd-1st centuries BCE (167-63 BCE) who came to power after the Maccabaean Revolt. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Hasmonean rule (second-first century BCE). <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish king of Edumaean descent who ruled Palestine under Roman authority from 40-4 BCE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>King Herod added the Second Wall (Green) in late first century BCE to accommodate the extension of the city and the new neighborhood he added in the north. Note that the northern line of this wall and the way it connect to the fortress Antonia is disputed by modern scholars and the map shows a second alternative with the broken green line. The historian <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish historian from whom we know much about life in 1st century CE Palestine. His works include a history of the first Jewish revolt against the Romans, which began in 66 CE, entitled The Jewish War Further Reading '>Josephus attributes the Third Wall (Red) to Herod Agrippa (41-44CE) and claims it was never really completed before the eruption of the great Revolt (in 66CE). Here too, the map shows two options for the northern line of this wall, one as suggested by the archaeologists Sukenik (at the top of the picture), and an alternative line that follows the walls of the current Old City. The present Old City Wall (Gray) was built by the <span class="tooltip" title=' The Turkish empire from the 16th-20th centuries CE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Ottoman ruler <span class="tooltip" title=' Suleiman I, also known as Suleiman the Magnificent, was the longest-reigning sultan of the…

The Journeys of the Apostle Paul: Map
description: Paul was a Jew from Tarsus (modern Turkey). He embarked on three journeys to spread his ideas about the end of the world. His views were shaped by the Jewish scriptures which anticipated a time of divine judgment on all evil. At this time the world would be destroyed, but then recreated and restored. A divinely appointed leader, known as the “anointed one” (i.e., <span class="tooltip" title=' From the Hebrew word mashiah, which means "the anointed one". In the Second Temple period and onwards it came to connote the idea of a miraculous leader who would bring salvation to the Jewish people. Further Reading '>Messiah/Christ), was the figure to usher in the new world. Paul believed that Jesus, a Jew from Nazareth (Israel), was in fact this Messiah and that adherence to Jesus would secure passage through the time of judgment and into the era of restoration. Paul traveled the eastern Mediterranean and argued that Jesus was the key to salvation at the end of the world for both Jews and non-Jews. Many years later, these teachings became the basis of a new religion, called Christianity.
date: 0005-01-01/0067-01-01

Belvoir Castle: aerial view
description: During the <span class="tooltip" title=" 1099-1291 CE ">crusader period (1095–1291 CE) several European style castles were built in the land of Israel. These are located in geographically strategic locations. The Belvoir Castle, for example, was built by the Knights Hospitaller (a medieval Catholic military order) in northern Israel on a bluff overlooking the <span class="tooltip" title=' A river that runs south from its source on the slopes of Mt. Hermon to the Sea of Galilee and south again from the Sea of Galilee through the Jordan River Valley to the Dead Sea. Further Reading '>Jordan River valley, in eastern, lower <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee. The castle guarded one of the roads leading to the Crusader “Kingdom of Jerusalem” to the south. The architecture of such castles is striking in the Middle East, because they include European style moats, useful where water was abundant, but an oddity in arid regions. The Belvoir Castle was built with two protective walls in concentric squares. After <span class="tooltip" title=' An Ayyubid ruler whose victories over the Crusaders in the late 12th century CE (and particularly the Battle of Hattin in 1187 CE) greatly limited the Crusader presence in Palestine. Further Reading '>Saladin’s remarkable victory at the Horns of Hattin (1187 CE), the castle was besieged and fell to Arab rulers.
date: 1100-01-01/1200-01-01