Qumran
description: This photograph shows the marl terraces of <span class="tooltip" title=' An archaeological site in the Judaean Desert in which the remains of a Jewish sectarian group were uncovered. Modern scholars tend to identify this group with the Essenes, who lived there between 150 BCE and 68 CE and probably produced the Dead Sea Scrolls. Further Reading '>Qumran, upon which the ancient settlement was built. The Qumran Caves 4 and 5 are pictured near the center of the image. The <span class="tooltip" title=' A seasonal riverbed (i.e., a dry riverbed in which water runs only during rainstorms). They are widespread in the dry regions of the Middle East. Further Reading '>wadi (dry riverbed) flows with water after fresh rains. The <span class="tooltip" title=' The lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), it is located to the east of the Central Hill, between the modern countries of Israel and Jordan. Further Reading '>Dead Sea is visible in the background.
date: -0150-01-01/0073-01-01

Qumran
description: This aerial photograph shows the settlement of <span class="tooltip" title=' An archaeological site in the Judaean Desert in which the remains of a Jewish sectarian group were uncovered. Modern scholars tend to identify this group with the Essenes, who lived there between 150 BCE and 68 CE and probably produced the Dead Sea Scrolls. Further Reading '>Qumran, which is located in the <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the administrative region around Jerusalem in the late Second Temple and Roman periods. Further Reading '>Judaean Desert, which is probably where a group of people known as the <span class="tooltip" title=' A sect of Jews from the Second Temple period.who lived in many cities in the ancient world. However, t They are best known from the desert settlement of Qumran, which is nearand the nearby the caves in which the Dead Sea Scrolls were found. As a result, it is believed commonly held that the Dead Sea Scrolls were written by the particular subset ofthe Essenes who lived at Qumran between 150 BCE and 68 CE. Further Reading '>Essenes lived between ca. 150 BCE and 72/73 CE. Most scholars think that the people who lived here wrote and/or copied the <span class="tooltip" title=' A collection of First and Second Temple period texts which were preserved by the arid climate of the Dead Sea region. The caves wherein the scrolls were deposited have often been connected to the nearby settlement of Qumran, and the Scrolls themselves are generally thought to have been written and/or copied by the Essenes. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Dead Sea Scrolls. The photo shows not just the settlement of Qumran but also the marl terrace (behind it), where Caves 4 and 5 were located. A total of 11 caves that contained scrolls were found by <span class="tooltip" title=' A term used for a group of predominantly nomadic, desert-dwelling Arab ethnic group that is traditionally divided into tribes or clans. Further Reading '>Bedouin and archaeologists in the 1940s…
date: -0150-01-01/0073-01-01

Qumran
description: This photograph shows what the limestone cliffs in the region around <span class="tooltip" title=' An archaeological site in the Judaean Desert in which the remains of a Jewish sectarian group were uncovered. Modern scholars tend to identify this group with the Essenes, who lived there between 150 BCE and 68 CE and probably produced the Dead Sea Scrolls. Further Reading '>Qumran look like, which makes it easier to understand how the <span class="tooltip" title=' A collection of First and Second Temple period texts which were preserved by the arid climate of the Dead Sea region. The caves wherein the scrolls were deposited have often been connected to the nearby settlement of Qumran, and the Scrolls themselves are generally thought to have been written and/or copied by the Essenes. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Dead Sea Scrolls could have been hidden for nearly 2,000 years without being discovered. Cave 1 is in the upper left of the picture, just beneath the top of the cliff face.
date: -0150-01-01/0073-01-01

Qumran
description: This photograph shows the inside of Cave 1, the first of 11 <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the administrative region around Jerusalem in the late Second Temple and Roman periods. Further Reading '>Judaean Desert caves that were found to contain the <span class="tooltip" title=' A collection of First and Second Temple period texts which were preserved by the arid climate of the Dead Sea region. The caves wherein the scrolls were deposited have often been connected to the nearby settlement of Qumran, and the Scrolls themselves are generally thought to have been written and/or copied by the Essenes. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Dead Sea Scrolls. Seven intact scrolls came from this cave, including the two oldest copies of the book of <span class="tooltip" title=' Both the name of an Israelite prophet and the name of the book of his prophecies that were included in the Hebrew Bible and consequently in the Christian Old Testament. Further Reading '>Isaiah (they date to the late 2nd century BCE; the next-earliest complete copy dates to the 10th century CE), a previously unknown work that embellished or commented on biblical books (called the 'Genesis Apocryphon'), and four sectarian writings (i.e., books written by a Jewish sect, probably the <span class="tooltip" title=' An archaeological site in the Judaean Desert in which the remains of a Jewish sectarian group were uncovered. Modern scholars tend to identify this group with the Essenes, who lived there between 150 BCE and 68 CE and probably produced the Dead Sea Scrolls. Further Reading '>Qumran <span class="tooltip" title=' A sect of Jews from the Second Temple period.who lived in many cities in the ancient world. However, t They are best known from the desert settlement of Qumran, which is nearand the nearby the caves in which the Dead Sea Scrolls were found. As a result, it is believed commonly held that the Dead Sea Scrolls were written by the particular subset ofthe Essenes who lived at Qumr…
date: -0150-01-01/0073-01-01

Qumran
description: This photograph shows the outside of Cave 1, which, according to the common story, is what the two <span class="tooltip" title=' A term used for a group of predominantly nomadic, desert-dwelling Arab ethnic group that is traditionally divided into tribes or clans. Further Reading '>Bedouin shepherd boys saw and threw a rock into, hoping to find a lost goat. Instead, they heard the crash of broken pottery and found the first of the <span class="tooltip" title=' A collection of First and Second Temple period texts which were preserved by the arid climate of the Dead Sea region. The caves wherein the scrolls were deposited have often been connected to the nearby settlement of Qumran, and the Scrolls themselves are generally thought to have been written and/or copied by the Essenes. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Dead Sea Scrolls.
date: -0150-01-01/0073-01-01

Qumran: pottery vessels
description: The jars in this picture are the same type of jar inside of which the scrolls from Cave 1 were found. Its unusual shape suggests that it may have been made specifically for storing scrolls. The same sort of pottery, as well as a potter's kiln, were discovered in the <span class="tooltip" title=' An archaeological site in the Judaean Desert in which the remains of a Jewish sectarian group were uncovered. Modern scholars tend to identify this group with the Essenes, who lived there between 150 BCE and 68 CE and probably produced the Dead Sea Scrolls. Further Reading '>Qumran settlement, creating another link between the inhabitants of the settlement and the <span class="tooltip" title=' A collection of First and Second Temple period texts which were preserved by the arid climate of the Dead Sea region. The caves wherein the scrolls were deposited have often been connected to the nearby settlement of Qumran, and the Scrolls themselves are generally thought to have been written and/or copied by the Essenes. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Dead Sea Scrolls themselves.
date: -0150-01-01/0073-01-01

Rahat
description: Rahat (Arabic for “desert dwellers”) is a well-known <span class="tooltip" title=' A term used for a group of predominantly nomadic, desert-dwelling Arab ethnic group that is traditionally divided into tribes or clans. Further Reading '>Bedouin city, home to people of mostly semi-nomadic Arab descent. The city is north of Be’er Sheva, in the northern Negev, between the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. It holds about 60,000 people the majority of whom are Muslim, as evident in this image from the minarets (“beacons”) of the mosques that are visible along the skyline. In modern Israel, the Bedouins are a recognized minority with equal rights of Israeli Jewish citizens—they vote in Israeli elections and enroll in the Israeli army. Still, many problems remain as to their integration into Israeli society.

Rashid: The Rosetta Stone
description: The Rosetta Stone contains an inscription written in three scripts (Egyptian <span class="tooltip" title=' An ancient pictorial writing system that was used by the Egyptians. Further Reading '>hieroglyphs, Demotic, and Greek) and allowed the decipherment of hieroglyphs and Demotic. It was found by Napoleon's army in 1799 in the city of Rashid (Rosetta) in the Nile Delta, but the inscription itself is from Memphis (ca. 120 miles southeast, at the southern tip of the Nile delta) and dates to 196 BCE. At the time of its discovery the ancient Egyptian languages were indecipherable, but Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion were able to make connections between them and the Greek text (which could be translated) after assuming that the cartouches in the Hieroglyphic text preserved the proper names seen in the Greek inscription (Ptolemy and Cleopatra).
date: -0196-01-01

Rhodes Armistice (1949)
description: The 1948 Arab-Israeli War lasted until a ceasefire agreement was signed in 1949 on the island of Rhodes. The Arabs lost about 20% of the land that they were originally allotted in the UN Partition Plan, and even the land that they received here was annexed to Jordan in the east and Egypt in the south. These lines held until the 1967 “Six-Day War.”

Roman Empire (100 BCE - 150 CE): Map
description: This map shows the gradual expansion of the Roman Empire around the Mediterranean between the years 100 BCE and 150 CE. Red areas indicate Roman control in 100 BCE; yellow areas indicate the extent of the empire at the time of <span class="tooltip" title=" A Roman General, statesman, Consul, author, and eventually dictator. Julius Caesar's reign marks the historical transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire. He was famously assassinated on the Ides of March (that is, March 15), 44 BCE. Further Reading ">Julius Caesar's death in 44 BCE; green areas indicate areas annexed by <span class="tooltip" title=' Born Gaius Octavius in 63 BCE, Caesar Augustus lived until 14 CE. He was the adopted son of Julius Caesar and eventually succeeded him as Caesar of Rome (at which time he took the name "Augustus"). He then became the Emperor of Rome, reigning from 27 BCE-14 CE. Further Reading '>Augustus (27-14 BCE); and blue areas indicate regions annexed between the death of Augustus (14 BCE) and 150 CE.
date: -0100-01-01/0150-01-01

Rome: Arch of Titus - detail of the interior
description: This photograph shows in the inside relief of the Arch of <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman general during the First Jewish Revolt and, later, the Roman emperor. He is especially well known for his role in the conquest of Jerusalem in 70 CE. A triumphal arch erected in Rome to commemorate his victories depicts Jewish captives and the menorah that was housed in the Temple in Jerusalem. Further Reading '>Titus, located near the eastern entrance to the Forum in Rome. The arch was erected by emperor Domitian, Titus' brother, to honor and commemorate the defeat of the Jews and the capture and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. Depicted on the relief is the triumphal procession after Titus' return to Rome, which included the golden menorah and other implements that were taken from the Temple.
date: 0070-01-01

Rome: Arch of Titus - overview
description: This photograph shows the Arch of <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman general during the First Jewish Revolt and, later, the Roman emperor. He is especially well known for his role in the conquest of Jerusalem in 70 CE. A triumphal arch erected in Rome to commemorate his victories depicts Jewish captives and the menorah that was housed in the Temple in Jerusalem. Further Reading '>Titus, erected near the eastern entrance to the Forum of the city of Rome to honor Titus's defeat of the Jews and the taking of Jerusalem in 70 CE. The inscription at the top reads 'The Roman Senate and People (dedicate this) to the divine Titus Vespasianus <span class="tooltip" title=' Born Gaius Octavius in 63 BCE, Caesar Augustus lived until 14 CE. He was the adopted son of Julius Caesar and eventually succeeded him as Caesar of Rome (at which time he took the name "Augustus"). He then became the Emperor of Rome, reigning from 27 BCE-14 CE. Further Reading '>Augustus, son of the divine <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman emperor from 69-79 CE. Prior to this he was the general in charge of the Roman response to the first Jewish revolt. Further Reading '>Vespasian.'
date: 0070-01-01

Rome: Judaea Capta coin
description: This bronze coin, which was minted in Rome in 71 CE after the Romans captured Jerusalem, features the profile of the Emperor <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman emperor from 69-79 CE. Prior to this he was the general in charge of the Roman response to the first Jewish revolt. Further Reading '>Vespasian on the recto (left), and, on the verso (right), a Roman soldier standing over a mourning woman who symbolizes the defeated <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the administrative region around Jerusalem in the late Second Temple and Roman periods. Further Reading '>Judaea. Between them is a palm tree. The inscription around these two figures reads IUDEA CAPTA, Latin for 'captured Judaea.'
date: 0071-01-01

Rome: Judaea Capta coin
description: This bronze coin, which was minted in Rome in 71 CE after the Romans captured Jerusalem, features the profile of the Emperor <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman emperor from 69-79 CE. Prior to this he was the general in charge of the Roman response to the first Jewish revolt. Further Reading '>Vespasian on the recto (left), and, on the verso (right), a Roman soldier standing over a mourning woman who symbolizes the defeated <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the administrative region around Jerusalem in the late Second Temple and Roman periods. Further Reading '>Judaea. Between them is a palm tree. The inscription around these two figures reads IUDEA CAPTA, Latin for 'captured Judaea.'
date: 0071-01-01

Rome: Julius Caesar
description: <span class="tooltip" title=" A Roman General, statesman, Consul, author, and eventually dictator. Julius Caesar's reign marks the historical transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire. He was famously assassinated on the Ides of March (that is, March 15), 44 BCE. Further Reading ">Julius Caesar was a Roman general, statesman, Consul, and author. Over the course of his military career he gained unmatched military power. When the Senate ordered him to lay down his arms and return to Rome, he refused and instead led a legion back to Rome, illegally entering Roman territory under arms. A civil war resulted, from which Caesar emerged as the unrivaled leader. This set a precedent for a sole leader to rule the Roman empire (previous to this Rome had been governed by a republic), and Julius Caesar's reign marks the historical transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire. He was famously assassinated on the Ides of March (that is, March 15), 44 BCE.
date: -0100-01-01/-0044-01-01

Rome: Octavian (Caesar Augustus)
description: <span class="tooltip" title=' Born Gaius Octavius in 63 BCE, Caesar Augustus lived until 14 CE. He was the adopted son of Julius Caesar and eventually succeeded him as Caesar of Rome (at which time he took the name "Augustus"). He then became the Emperor of Rome, reigning from 27 BCE-14 CE. Further Reading '>Caesar Augustus, arguably the first Emperor of Rome (scholars disagree over whether to call <span class="tooltip" title=" A Roman General, statesman, Consul, author, and eventually dictator. Julius Caesar's reign marks the historical transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire. He was famously assassinated on the Ides of March (that is, March 15), 44 BCE. Further Reading ">Julius Caesar the first "Emperor"), was born Gaius Octavius (he took the name "Augustus" after he became the Caesar of Rome). He was adopted as a son by Julius Caesar, who was his maternal great-uncle. He was responsible for great building projects in Rome and is famous for having said, "I found Rome a city of clay and leave it a city of marble." His reign initiated a period of relative peace in the Mediterranean known as the Pax Romana (the Roman Peace).
date: -0027-01-01/0014-01-01

Rome: The Arch of Titus - detail of the interior
description: This photograph shows details of the relief carving under the Arch of <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman general during the First Jewish Revolt and, later, the Roman emperor. He is especially well known for his role in the conquest of Jerusalem in 70 CE. A triumphal arch erected in Rome to commemorate his victories depicts Jewish captives and the menorah that was housed in the Temple in Jerusalem. Further Reading '>Titus, located near the eastern entrance to the Forum in Rome. The arch was erected by emperor Domitian, Titus' brother, to honor and commemorate the defeat of the Jews and the capture and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. Depicted on the relief is the triumphal procession after Titus' return to Rome, which included the golden menorah and other implements that were taken from the Temple.
date: 0070-01-01

Rome: The Arch of Titus - overview
description: This photograph shows the Arch of <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman general during the First Jewish Revolt and, later, the Roman emperor. He is especially well known for his role in the conquest of Jerusalem in 70 CE. A triumphal arch erected in Rome to commemorate his victories depicts Jewish captives and the menorah that was housed in the Temple in Jerusalem. Further Reading '>Titus, which was erected near the eastern entrance to the Forum of the city of Rome to commemorate Titus's defeat of the Jews and the taking of Jerusalem in 70 CE. The inscription at the top reads 'The Roman Senate and People (dedicate this) to the divine Titus Vespasianus <span class="tooltip" title=' Born Gaius Octavius in 63 BCE, Caesar Augustus lived until 14 CE. He was the adopted son of Julius Caesar and eventually succeeded him as Caesar of Rome (at which time he took the name "Augustus"). He then became the Emperor of Rome, reigning from 27 BCE-14 CE. Further Reading '>Augustus, son of the divine <span class="tooltip" title=' A Roman emperor from 69-79 CE. Prior to this he was the general in charge of the Roman response to the first Jewish revolt. Further Reading '>Vespasian.'
date: 0070-01-01

Samaria Sabaste: Hellenistic Round Tower
description: This round stone tower dates to the <span class="tooltip" title=" 332-198 BCE ">Early Hellenistic period and was part of the defenses of the city of Samaria, which is located in the central and northern parts of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill. It is possible that this tower is evidence of the Greek occupation of the city at the time of <span class="tooltip" title=' A Macedonian leader who established Greek hegemony over the Near East in the late 4th century BCE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Alexander the Great, as this style of tower had been used in Greece in the previous century and it became increasingly popular in later periods.
date: -0323-01-01/-0200-01-01

Samaria-Sebaste: the Forum
description: This aerial photograph shows the Roman-style forum and adjoining basilica at Sebaste, which is located in the central part of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill. <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish king of Edumaean descent who ruled Palestine under Roman authority from 40-4 BCE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Herod built this town around 30 BCE in honor of <span class="tooltip" title=' Born Gaius Octavius in 63 BCE, Caesar Augustus lived until 14 CE. He was the adopted son of Julius Caesar and eventually succeeded him as Caesar of Rome (at which time he took the name "Augustus"). He then became the Emperor of Rome, reigning from 27 BCE-14 CE. Further Reading '>Caesar Augustus (Sebastos is Greek for the Latin word Augustus). Even though the region's inhabitants included a large number of <span class="tooltip" title=' A group of people turned a nation who lived in the northern parts of the Central Hill, namely in the territories of the former northern kingdom of Israel. They continue to exist till this very day. According to the Bible, the Samaritans competed with the Judeans in the Persian era. Further Reading '>Samaritans, Herod built a gigantic temple to Augustus on the highest point in the area.
date: -0030-01-01/-0004-01-01

Samaria-Sebaste: the Mausoleum
description: This building is a mausoleum, i.e. a monumental burial structure, from the 2nd-3rd century CE. Bodies were placed inside the building in sarcophagi (lidded coffins carved out of limestone). Mausolea are extremely rare in Roman Palestine. The two columns at the entrance are carved in Corinthian Style with capitals that look like acanthus leaves. This testifies to the Roman taste of the wealthy family (whose identity is unknown) that built this structure.
date: 0100-01-01/0300-01-01

Samaria-Sebaste: the Roman Temple
description: This monumental stairway is all that still exists of the monumental temple that <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish king of Edumaean descent who ruled Palestine under Roman authority from 40-4 BCE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>King Herod the Great (37-4 BCE) erected and dedicated to the Roman Emperor <span class="tooltip" title=' Born Gaius Octavius in 63 BCE, Caesar Augustus lived until 14 CE. He was the adopted son of Julius Caesar and eventually succeeded him as Caesar of Rome (at which time he took the name "Augustus"). He then became the Emperor of Rome, reigning from 27 BCE-14 CE. Further Reading '>Caesar Augustus. The temple's foundations were laid directly over the top of the palaces of the <span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelite kings <span class="tooltip" title=' The king of the northern kingdom of Israel from 880-847 BCE. He is mentioned in the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III and the Mesha Stele. Further Reading '>Omri and <span class="tooltip" title=' Ahab was the son of Omri and king of the northern kingdom of Israel from ca. 869-850 BCE. He led the consolidated forces against Shalmaneser III at the Battle of Qarqar. Further Reading '>Ahab. The temple was damaged when the city was destroyed in the Jewish revolt against Rome (66-70 CE) but it was repaired and enlarged by the Emperor <span class="tooltip" title=' The Emperor of Rome from 193-211 CE. Further Reading '>Septimius Severus in 200 CE when he rebuilt the city and granted it colonial status. In the background are the hills of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill.
date: -0027-01-01/0070-01-01

Samaria-Sebaste: the Roman theater
description: This theater is an example of both a new custom and a new architectural form brought eastward by the conquests of <span class="tooltip" title=' A Macedonian leader who established Greek hegemony over the Near East in the late 4th century BCE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Alexander the Great and the Romans. Theater was a Greek invention, but many (if not most) of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Refers both to a period (i.e., from Alexander the Great to the Romans, which is 332 - 64 BCE in our region) and the Greek culture that Alexander brought. Further Reading '>Hellenistic 'influences' came to Israel/Palestine as a result of the Romans. This one was built by <span class="tooltip" title=' A Jewish king of Edumaean descent who ruled Palestine under Roman authority from 40-4 BCE. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>King Herod the Great (37-4 BCE) soon after the city was given to him by <span class="tooltip" title=' Born Gaius Octavius in 63 BCE, Caesar Augustus lived until 14 CE. He was the adopted son of Julius Caesar and eventually succeeded him as Caesar of Rome (at which time he took the name "Augustus"). He then became the Emperor of Rome, reigning from 27 BCE-14 CE. Further Reading '>Caesar Augustus in 27 BCE. The city of Sebaste continued to be inhabited through the 6th century CE.
date: -0027-01-01/0070-01-01

Saqqara: Execration Text
description: This figurine, modeled in unbaked clay, has the form of a kneeling prisoner with his arms tied behind him at the elbows. The writing is <span class="tooltip" title=' A cursive script that evolved from hieroglyphics (and was easier and quicker to write than the cumbersome symbols of hieroglyphics). Further Reading '>hieratic, a script much like Egyptian hieroglyphics; the inscription contains the names of enemies. After it was inscribed it was deliberately smashed in order to curse the enemies listed in the text (probably people who posed a threat to some important Egyptian or to Egypt in general).
date: -1878-01-01/-1842-01-01

Sea of Galilee
description: This photograph shows the landscape around the Sea of <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee, where Jesus spent nearly all of his life.
date: -0004-01-01/0033-01-01

Sinai Desert
description: This photo of the northern <span class="tooltip" title=' A relatively large desert south of the Land of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Sinai Desert shows the geography, topography, and sparse vegetation that is characteristic of southern Israel/Palestine and the area to its south. Much of its topography is created by sand dunes that are created around rocky hills and mountains (as can be seen in at the top of the photograph).

Sinai Peninsula: map
description: The <span class="tooltip" title=' A relatively large desert south of the Land of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Sinai Desert is bounded by the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba. The region names on this map (<span class="tooltip" title=' The region in which the Moabites lived in the Iron Age. It is located on the eastern side of the Jordan River. Ammon was to its north and Edom was to its south. Further Reading '>Moab, <span class="tooltip" title=' Edom is the region where the tribe of the Edomites lived in the Iron Age. It is located in southern Jordan, east of the Dead Sea and the Negev Desert. In the Persian and Hellenistic periods some of the Edomites appear to have migrated west into the Negev Desert and became the Idumaeans. Further Reading '>Edom, Midian, Goshen, and Egypt), as well as the names and locations of the cities, are those of the Biblical period (Bronze and Iron Ages). The map shows the main transportation routes (in black lines) of the ancient Near East, especially the <span class="tooltip" title=' "Way of the Sea" in Latin, it was the main "highway" that ran through the Land of Israel/Palestine on the coast. Further Reading '>Via Maris, starting in Egypt and going north along the Mediterranean coast, and the so-called 'Kings Highway' that begins at the northern tip of the Gulf of Aqaba and runs north along the Syrian-African Rift. The red lines plot conjectured routes from the stories of the <span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelite <span class="tooltip" title=' The second book of the Bible and the name for the Israelite migration from Egypt in the days of Moses. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>Exodus from Egypt.

Sinai Peninsula: satellite photo
description: The Sinai Peninsula is nowadays part of the modern State of Egypt. The Gulf of Suez, on the left, divides it from the rest of Egypt. The Gulf of Aqaba, on the right, separates it from Saudi Arabia. The southernmost tip of Israel is at the northernmost tip of the Gulf of Aqaba, there sits the modern city of Eilat. These two gulfs are fingers of the Red Sea, to the south, which is, in turn, an extension of the Indian Ocean. The Mediterranean Sea is visible in the background and so is the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lowest place on earth (1,388 feet below sea level), it is located to the east of the Central Hill, between the modern countries of Israel and Jordan. Further Reading '>Dead Sea at the top right corner.

Southern Coastal Plain: Relief Map
description: This relief map shows the southern <span class="tooltip" title=' The western part of the Land of Israel/Palestine that sits between the Mediterranean Sea and the Central Hill. Further Reading '>coastal plain from Jerusalem (in the east) to the coast (in the west), and from Joppa (the area of modern Tel Aviv - in the north) down to Gaza (in the south). In the period preceding the <span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelite monarchies, this coastal plain was the territory of the <span class="tooltip" title=' One of the Sea Peoples who settled along the southern shores of Canaan around 1150 BCE. Overview | Further Reading '>Philistines. 'Philistia' - the name of the land of the Philistines - is the root of the word 'Palestine.' Note the distinctive topographical features of the region: the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill, running from north to south, and the <span class="tooltip" title=' The foothill region between the Seashore Plains and the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Shephelah (an intermediary hilly region) and the <span class="tooltip" title=' The western region of the Land of Israel/Palestine that sits between the Mediterranean Sea and the Central Hill. Further Reading '>seashore plains to its west.

Southern Mesopotamia: Cuneiform tablets
description: The earliest writing was not on paper, but on clay tablets. Instead of a pen, scribes used an instrument called a stylus that was triangular in cross-section. They would press the tip of the stylus into the clay to make the triangular portions of the symbol and drag the edge of the stylus across the clay to make the lines. The size and shape of clay tablets varied with the type of text being recorded and with changing scribal preferences. When a scribe finished with one side of the tablet he would turn the bottom edge up and write on the back. After he was done writing, the tablet would usually be set in the sun to dry (though tablets were sometimes fired in a kiln).
date: -4000-01-01/-3000-01-01

Sovereignty
description: The different colors of the map show different areas of sovereignty in modern Israel and Palestine. The light tan color is the modern State of Israel within the borders recognized by the international community in 1948-9. Israel shares a border with Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Egypt. The areas in light green are the territories conquered by Israel in 1967 – the Gaza strip (from Egypt, along with the Sinai, which has since been returned to Egypt), the West Bank (from Jordan), and the <span class="tooltip" title=' A high plateau that rises east and northeast of the Sea of Galilee. Modern Israel took this region from Syria in the war of 1967 (also known as the Six Day War), and continues to hold it to this day. Further Reading '>Golan Heights (from Syria).

St. Catherine's Monastery: Codex Sinaiticus
description: This photograph shows a page from the Codex Sinaiticus, which was created in the 4th century CE. The extant pages (400 of an estimated 730) contain the oldest complete manuscript of the <span class="tooltip" title=' A corpus of 27 books from the 1st-2nd centuries CE, mostly written by Jewish followers of Jesus, that eventually became the foundational text of Christianity. Further Reading | Even Further Reading '>New Testament. It was found at St. Katherine's Monastery in the <span class="tooltip" title=' A relatively large desert south of the Land of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Sinai Desert and procured under controversial circumstances by Konstantin von Tischendorf in the 19th century.
date: 0300-01-01/0400-01-01

Suez Canal
description: The Suez Canal is a narrow waterway connecting the Red Sea (the large body of water in the image) to the Mediterranean Sea, barely visible at the top. The Suez Canal is on the top left side of the Sinai Peninsula. The Canal was originally designed in 1854 by the French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps. It was strongly opposed by the British for the possible negative effects it would have on British global trade. The British, however, eventually bought a 44% share in the canal in 1875 from Egypt. The Suez Canal was a major point of contention in the 1956 conflict, known as the “Suez Crisis” (or “Sinai War”), when the Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Canal and seized its waterways, leading to a series of military conflicts, culminating in the 1967 Six-Day war.

Sumer: Cuneiform script
description: Writing was invented in southern <span class="tooltip" title=' Literally "between the rivers," it is the region that surrounds the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, in modern-day Iraq and Iran. It is the "cradle of civilization," so-called because the earliest cities and evidence of written language come from this area. Further Reading '>Mesopotamia, in the ancient kingdom of <span class="tooltip" title=' An ancient city in southern Mesopotamia from which come the earliest writing and language (Sumerian), as well as the earliest known texts and myths. Further Reading '>Sumer, sometime before 3,000 BCE. <span class="tooltip" title=' A wedge-shaped non-alphabetic script that was used for the ancient languages of Akkadian, Sumerian, Babylonian, and Ugaritic. These languages were written on clay tablets, not paper, and the symbols were pressed into the clay with a stylus. Further Reading '>Cuneiform, the type of writing seen in column 6 of this slide, was a development from earlier 'logographic' writing, in which signs stood for words (e.g., the sign for fish is a drawing of a fish, which was called 'kha' in the Sumerian language). Later cuneiform symbols (those in columns 5 and 6) were both logographic and syllabic - that is, they could be used to mean the thing that they represent or the sound of that word. So, for instance, the cuneiform symbol for 'fish' could mean either 'fish' or be combined with the 'la' sign to form the word 'kha.la,' which means 'share' or 'part.'
date: -4000-01-01/-3000-01-01

Tale of Sinuhe
description: The story of Sinuhe has been preserved on numerous papyri and ostraca. This manuscript is written in an Egyptian script called <span class="tooltip" title=' A cursive script that evolved from hieroglyphics (and was easier and quicker to write than the cumbersome symbols of hieroglyphics). Further Reading '>hieratic, which is closely related to Egyptian <span class="tooltip" title=' An ancient pictorial writing system that was used by the Egyptians. Further Reading '>hieroglyphs, and dates to the Egyptian 12th Dynasty (ca. 1991-1785 BCE). It tells the story of an Egyptian official who lived in voluntary exile in southern Syria/northern <span class="tooltip" title=' The name of the Land of Israel/Palestine prior to period of the Monarchy (ca. 1000 BCE). The people who lived in the land prior to the Israelites are called "Canaanites" in the Hebrew Bible and other sources. Further Reading '>Canaan. The details of the story are valuable for the light that they shed on life in southern Syria during the early <span class="tooltip" title=" 2,200-1,750 BCE ">Middle Bronze I (2000-1800 BCE). The descriptions mention tents and encampments but not towns and cities, suggesting that nomadism persisted.
date: -2000-01-01/-1800-01-01

Tel Arad: Early Bronze Age tower
description: This photograph of one of the many the <span class="tooltip" title=" 3,200-2,350 BCE ">Early Bronze Age towers at Arad reveals defenses typical of the period. The towers, 10-12 feet in diameter and found at 65-80 foot intervals, projected out from the wall, thus exposing any attacker attempting to scale the wall to the projectiles of the defenders.
date: -3300-01-01/-2000-01-01

Tel Be'er Sheva
description: This aerial view of Tel Be'er Sheva shows the 8th century BCE outline of the <span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelite city and gives an idea of the aridity of the <span class="tooltip" title=' The arid region south of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Negev desert. The city was built in the 10th-9th century BCE by first constructing a platform surrounded by a moat. The city was then built on top of this rampart and a wall was built around the city. It was destroyed in the 8th century BCE, probably as a result of the campaign of the <span class="tooltip" title=' Assyria was a major Mesopotamian empire which ruled over Palestine in the 8th-7th centuries BCE. Further Reading '>Assyrian king <span class="tooltip" title=' The King of Assyria from 704-681 BCE. Further Reading '>Sennacherib in 701 BCE. Note that, rather than the Hippodamian plan of Graeco-Roman cities (i.e., perpendicular streets), this Israelite city had a circular street plan.
date: -1000-01-01/-0700-01-01

Tel Beit Shemesh
description: This view of Tel Beit Shemesh (the archaeological ruins in the foreground), an <span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelite town during the Iron Age, gives a feel of the transition from the <span class="tooltip" title=' The western part of the Land of Israel/Palestine that sits between the Mediterranean Sea and the Central Hill. Further Reading '>Coastal plain to the <span class="tooltip" title=' The hilly region that runs north-south through the middle of the Land of Israel/Palestine. It is bounded by the Jezreel Valley to the north, by the Jordan River Valley to the east, by the Negev Desert to the south, and by the Seashore Plains to the west. Further Reading '>Central Hill. The peaks of the Central Hill, running from north to south (left to right), are seen rising in background. This region between the hills and the <span class="tooltip" title=' The western region of the Land of Israel/Palestine that sits between the Mediterranean Sea and the Central Hill. Further Reading '>seashore plains (which are not seen the photograph) is called the <span class="tooltip" title=' The foothill region between the Seashore Plains and the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. Further Reading '>Shephelah.
date: -1200-01-01/-0700-01-01

Tel Dan: Middle Bronze Age gate
description: This photo shows the fully preserved arched gateway at Tel Dan, which was made of mud bricks and is the first such structure found intact in Israel. In the <span class="tooltip" title=" 3,200-2,350 BCE ">Early Bronze Age, sun-dried mud bricks began to replace the stones that had been used for city walls and towers, perhaps because they could be erected more quickly and raised higher than boulder walls.
date: -1800-01-01/-1700-01-01

Tel Dor: aerial view
description: The excavations at Tel Dor, on the coast of Israel between Tel Aviv and Haifa, are barely visibly on the rocky promontory in the low center of this photograph. Dor was one of the <span class="tooltip" title=' A seafaring Semitic people who are most closely associated with the cities of Tyre and Sidon. However, they established colonies throughout the Mediterranean, the most well known of which was Carthage. They are generally credited with the invention of the alphabet. Further Reading '>Phoenician harbors in antiquity, first settled in the 15th century BCE and inhabited well into the Roman period. It was especially prominent as a port city of maritime trade in the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lands, people, and Empire east of Mesopotamia (in the regions of modern Iran). It conquered the Near East in the mid-6th century. Map of Cyrus&#39; kingdom | Further Reading '>Persian and <span class="tooltip" title=' Refers both to a period (i.e., from Alexander the Great to the Romans, which is 332 - 64 BCE in our region) and the Greek culture that Alexander brought. Further Reading '>Hellenistic periods.
date: -1500-01-01/0230-01-01

Tel Dor: head of Bes
description: This bone pendant is a typical depiction of the god Bes, an Egyptian god who protected pregnant women. It would have been the central ornament on a necklace.
date: -1200-01-01/-0586-01-01

Tel Dor: Hellenistic street
description: This photograph shows one of the main streets of the 3rd century BCE city of Dor. This phase of the city was built under King Ptolemy II (285-246 BCE) on a Hippodamian plan (i.e., a checkerboard pattern of city blocks) and had an advanced sewage system (note the drain cutting across the street at an angle in the center of the picture) and was supplied by an aqueduct. Shops opened into the street on both sides, and apartments would have stood above the shops.
date: -0285-01-01/-0064-01-01

Tel Dor: Persian period figurines
description: These three figurines of pregnant women wearing Egyptian wigs and holding one hand on their stomachs are typical of figurines found at other <span class="tooltip" title=' A seafaring Semitic people who are most closely associated with the cities of Tyre and Sidon. However, they established colonies throughout the Mediterranean, the most well known of which was Carthage. They are generally credited with the invention of the alphabet. Further Reading '>Phoenician sites in Lebanon, Cyprus, and Israel in the <span class="tooltip" title=' The lands, people, and Empire east of Mesopotamia (in the regions of modern Iran). It conquered the Near East in the mid-6th century. Map of Cyrus&#39; kingdom | Further Reading '>Persian period. Scholars usually assume that they were votive offerings to a goddess. Some similar figurines from a 4th century BCE shipwreck at Shave Zion, on the northern coast of Israel, bore the symbol of the Phoenician goddess Tanit.
date: -0586-01-01/-0332-01-01

Tel Dor: sculpture of a head
description: This finely worked sculpture of a bearded man wearing a sort of a head cover is typical of the high-quality <span class="tooltip" title=' Refers both to a period (i.e., from Alexander the Great to the Romans, which is 332 - 64 BCE in our region) and the Greek culture that Alexander brought. Further Reading '>Hellenistic finds from the port city of Dor.
date: -0332-01-01/-0064-01-01

Tel Halif: Persian Period Pottery
description: All three of these vessels can be dated to the late 6th or early 5th century BCE, during the first decades of <span class="tooltip" title=' The lands, people, and Empire east of Mesopotamia (in the regions of modern Iran). It conquered the Near East in the mid-6th century. Map of Cyrus&#39; kingdom | Further Reading '>Persian control of Palestine. However, pottery forms do not change simply because the political control does. As a result, these forms look very much like those from the <span class="tooltip" title=" 900-700 BCE ">Iron II period. That said, pottery forms do change over time, so the lamp in this photograph (in the center) is flatter, wider, and thinner-walled than those found 100 years earlier (in the Iron II period), and the juglet on the left is somewhat trimmer in profile than its Iron II counterparts.
date: -0550-01-01/-0450-01-01

Tel Hazor
description: This is an aerial image of the remains of Tel Hazor (Tell el-Qedah), an ancient city north of the Sea of <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee, in the Hula Valley of northern Israel. At the top left of this picture, the square-like stone structures are the remains of a distinctive six-chambered gate (only half of which is shown in the picture). Such gates have three chambers on each side. The smaller square at the top of this image is the foundation of a tower. The wall extending to the right is known as a “casemate” wall. This was a hollow wall that could be filled with weapons or supplies for the city. Hazor was one of the most important pre-<span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelite fortified cities of the Bronze Age. The site was later inhabited by the Israelites during the reign of King Solomon.

Tel Hazor
description: This image shows Tel Hazor looking west. The six-chambered gate is near the center of the image. There appear to be eight chambers, but the front square sections are remains of two tower foundations, guarding the entrance. Notice where the “casemate” city walls extend to the right and left. The towers protrude past the city wall in order to flank anyone who would attack the wall directly. The roofed area in the image, to the top left, is a modern building that covers the ancient <span class="tooltip" title=' The people who lived in the Land prior to the Israelites (i.e., prior to ca. 1000 BCE). They continued to live in the Seashore Plains for centuries after the rise of David. Further Reading '>Canaanite palace/temple. Hazor was an international hub of trade in the Bronze Age, and later, during the Iron Age, turned into a fortified <span class="tooltip" title=' According to the Bible, the descendents of the 12 sons of Jacob/Israel who formed the nation of Israel. Further Reading '>Israelite city. Many debates remain among historians and archaeologists about the role of Hazor in ancient Israelite history and religion.

Tel Hazor: aerial view
description: Hazor, an ancient city and tel that sits at the southern end of the <span class="tooltip" title=' A valley in Upper Galilee, to the west of the Golan Heights. Today it is a rich agricultural valley surrounded by steep heights to the east and west; however, in antiquity it was a swamp. Further Reading '>Huleh Valley in eastern upper <span class="tooltip" title=' "The Galilee" is the hilly region north of the Central Hill in the Land of Israel/Palestine. It consists of two parts, Upper and Lower. The Sea of Galilee in Lower Galilee and the Huleh Valley in Upper Galilee mark its eastern border. Further Reading '>Galilee, was one of the largest and most important cities in the region from ca 1,900 BCE until 732 BCE when it was destroyed by the <span class="tooltip" title=' Assyria was a major Mesopotamian empire which ruled over Palestine in the 8th-7th centuries BCE. Further Reading '>Assyrian king <span class="tooltip" title=' The King of Assyria from 745-727 BCE. He was responsible for the conquest and destruction of the northern kingdom of Israel in 732 BCE. Further Reading '>Tiglath-Pileser III. Intensive archaeological excavation on the tel and at its base revealed a great deal about the early history of the region.
date: -1900-01-01/-0732-01-01

Tel Hazor: Shrine of the Stelae
description: This photograph shows an intact shrine from inside the <span class="tooltip" title=' The holiest place in a temple. In the Jerusalem Temple the phrase refers to the room where it was believed that God’s intangible presence dwelt. Further Reading '>Holy of Holies of a small broadhouse temple (i.e., the entrance is on the broad side of the building). It dates to the 13th century BCE. The stones were all cut from basalt, a local rock. Eight standing stones, or stelae, flank the central standing stone that depicts two suppliant hands engraved with a lunar crescent and circle between and above them. To the right stands a massive stone (an orthostat), originally from the temple's porch, with a lion carved on it. To the left is a statuette of a man or god sitting on his throne, holding a cup. The excavator, Yigael Yadin, concluded that this shrine was destroyed by <span class="tooltip" title=' The sixth book of the Hebrew Bible, which portrays the "Conquest of Canaan" by the Israelites (ca. 1250 BCE). It is named after the central figure in the book, who was the General of the Israelite army. Further Reading '>Joshua in the 13th century BCE.
date: -1400-01-01/1200-01-01

Tel Hazor: the Pillared Storehouse
description: This large rectangular building with its double row of pillars was a royal storehouse from the 9th century BCE. Other storehouses like it have been discovered at Megiddo and at Tel Be'er Sheva.
date: -0900-01-01/-0800-01-01