Yiftael: Early Bronze Age I Architecture
The ancient site of Yiftael, in Lower Galilee, has one of the best preserved Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age I (3150-2850) villages in Galilee. This photograph shows the foundations of the round or elliptical houses that comprised a room that was ca. 15 feet in diameter. The small circle of stones near the center of each house constituted a stone base for a wooden pillar. Nobody knows what the flat stones with the two holes in them were used for.
Yarmuk River: Islamic Period significance
The Yarmuk river flows east-to-west, forming the modern political border between Syria and Jordan. The Yarmuk empties into the Jordan River just south of the Sea of Galilee, where it also marks the border between Jordan and Israel. The Yarmuk River was the site of a famous military victory by the Arab Rashidun Caliphate over the Byzantine Empire (636 CE), after which the Islamic forces established their supremacy over Syria. The brilliant military strategist, Khalid ibn al-Walid, trapped the Byzantine army by outflanking them on the north, thus pinning them against the ravine to the west and the Yarmuk River to the south.
Albright (1891-1971) was an American archaeologist and biblical scholar. He became the foremost proponent of “biblical archaeology,” a movement that attempted to authenticate events, people, and ideas found in the Bible through scientific, archaeological excavations. Albright used the stratigraphic method of excavating a “tel” (hill) by digging down and studying how each layer or cross section relates to the layers above and below. This includes examining the distinct material from each layer, such as pottery, debris, coins, sediment, or building ruins that have piled up over time. Albright directed important excavations at Hazor and Megiddo.
Washington, DC: The Oslo Accords - Yitzhak Rabin, Bill Clinton, and Yassir Arafat
This famous photograph shows the handshake between Yitzhak Rabin, the Prime Minister of Israel, and Yassir Arafat, the Chairman of the Palestinian Liberation Organization, after signing the Declaration of Principles of the Oslo Peace Accords at the White House in Washington, D.C.
Wadi Qelt: Choziba Monastery (St. George's)
This photograph shows the cliff-side monastery called Choziba or St. George's Monastery, which is in the Wadi Qelt, approximately 3 miles west of Jericho, in the Judaean Desert. The monastery was established in the early fifth century, during the early phase of monastery activity in the region. It is still active and inhabited by Greek Orthodox monks.
This is a painting of Vasco de Gama, Admiral of the Seas of Arabia, Persia, India, and all the Orient for the Portuguese crown. He lived from ca. 1460-1524 and he is known for the leading the first sea voyage that circumnavigated Africa and found the sea route from Portugal to the far east.
The Sumerian King List is the name given to a traditional canon of the early kings of Mesopotamia, thought by some scholars to have been composed in the time of Utu-hegal, a king of the city of Uruk who restored Sumerian independence after the invasion of the Gutians near the end of the third millennium BCE. As with the pre-flood patriarchs in Genesis 5, the kings listed in the pre-flood section of this text lived for extraordinarily long reigns (the longest being 64,800 years).
This photograph of a waterfall was taken near the modern town of Metulla, at the northernmost reaches of the Huleh Valley (where the Huleh begins to climb up toward Mt. Hermon and the Anti-Lebanon mountain range). It illustrates the lush, watery nature of Upper Galilee in the winter months - in excess of 36 inches per winter.
Northern Galilee was known as 'Upper Galilee' in antiquity because its elevation was higher than Southern Galilee. Today its central portion, called the Huleh Valley (visible in the foreground of this picture), is a rich agricultural valley surrounded by steep heights to the east and west; however, in antiquity this valley was a swamp. In the background is Mt. Hermon, the northernmost and highest point in modern Israel/Palestine, rising to over 7,200 feet.
This photo shows a small one-room temple enclosure near the copper mines of Timna in the eastern Sinai Desert. It was originally built to the Egyptian goddess Hathor in the 14th or 13th century BCE. Later in the 13th or early 12th century BCE the Egyptian shrine was refurbished by Midianites. The Egyptian hieroglyphs were removed and the Hathor pillared-images were moved (one was planted in the ground upside-down). It seems that in this period the object of worship was a copper serpent with a gilded head.
This faience mask, discovered at the Temple of Hathor near the copper mines of Timna in the eastern Sinai Desert, was made to be a representation of the goddess. The eyes are characteristically Egyptian, and clearly were colored. It was one of more than 11,000 small objects discovered to have been left at the shrine as a votive offering to the goddess.
Tiberias was founded by Herod Antipas in 20 CE and has been continuously occupied since then. It is located on the west shore of the Sea of Galilee. At the top of the picture one sees the modern city of Tiberias which sits on the ruins of the Arab town. At the bottom of the picture is the Tiberian neighborhood known as Hammat Tiberias, which developed around the mineral springs that are located there. Between Hammat Tiberias and the modern city one can see an open, green space. That was the location of the Roman and then Byzantine cities. In 1033 CE an earthquake destroyed the Byzantine city and the Arab rulers rebuilt it to the north. At the top the hills of Upper Galilee are visible.
This aerial photograph, looking north, shows the modern city of Tiberias. Tiberias was founded by Herod Antipas in 20 CE and has been continuously occupied since then. It is located on the west shore of the Sea of Galilee. At the top of the picture one sees the modern city of Tiberias which sits on the ruins of the Arab town. At the bottom of the picture is the Tiberian neighborhood known as Hammat Tiberias, which developed around the mineral springs that are located there. Between Hammat Tiberias and the modern city one can see an open, green space. That was the location of the Roman and then Byzantine cities. In 1033 CE an earthquake destroyed the Byzantine city and the Arab rulers rebuilt it to the north. The hills of Upper Galilee are visible at the top of the photo.
This photograph shows a page from the Codex Vaticanus, which was created in the 4th century CE and is arguably the most important ancient manuscript of the Greek Bible. Codex Vaticanus originally contained both the Old and the New Testaments, but only 759 of the original 820 pages have survived. However, it is an extremely high quality text and it serves as the basis for a number of authoritative editions of the Bible. It was acquired by the Vatican in the 15th century CE.
This map shows the regional divisions (eparchies) after the Battle of Paneas (198 BCE), when the Seleucids seized control of Israel/Palestine: Phoenicia, Samaria, Paralia, Idumaea, and Galaaditis.
This map shows the provinces of Roman control around the Mediterranean. The red circle is around Rome, the capital of the Roman Empire, and the arrow points to the city of Constantinople, which is where Constantine moved the capital of the Empire in 330 CE. The new city placed the capital on the seam between Europe and Asia.
This map shows the gradual expansion of the Roman Empire around the Mediterranean between the years 100 BCE and 150 CE. Red areas indicate Roman control in 100 BCE; yellow areas indicate the extent of the empire at the time of Julius Caesar's death in 44 BCE; green areas indicate areas annexed by Augustus; and blue areas indicate regions annexed between the death of Augustus (14 CE) and 150 CE.
This map shows the regional divisions (hyparchies) in the Ptolemaic Period (i.e., 312-198 BCE): Phoenicia, Galilee, Samaria, Judaea, Perea, Ammonitis, Moabitis, and Idumaea.
How should one define the geographic entity known as the “Middle East”? Scholars have diverging views based on political, demographic, and historical factors. The natural topographic and geological features of the region provide a helpful starting point, in particular, the major bodies of water. The “Middle East” can be drawn by tracing the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, down to the Nile River, and then continuing south to include the Red Sea, then east to the Persian Gulf, then north to the southern part of the Caspian Sea. Lastly, this demarcation continues west towards Turkey and the Mediterranean.
This map shows an aerial view of the Mediterranean Sea and surrounding regions. The Black Sea is directly above the eastern part of the Mediterranean and the Caspian Sea is further east. The European continent is north of the Mediterranean, with North Africa to the south and the Middle East to the east, covering the regions between Egypt and Iran.
The Mediterranean and Middle East in the 13th century CE: Map
This map represents the military movements in the Mediterranean and the Middle East in the 13th century CE, including the 7th Crusade of King Louis IX in 1248 CE from France to Egypt (red) and the move of the Mongols in the 13th century, emanating from their homeland of Mongolia (yellow oval) into Asia, Central Europe, and eventually Syria and Palestine.
Paul was a Jew from Tarsus (modern Turkey). He embarked on three journeys to spread his ideas about the end of the world. His views were shaped by the Jewish scriptures which anticipated a time of divine judgment on all evil. At this time the world would be destroyed, but then recreated and restored. A divinely appointed leader, known as the “anointed one” (i.e., Messiah/Christ), was the figure to usher in the new world. Paul believed that Jesus, a Jew from Nazareth (Israel), was in fact this Messiah and that adherence to Jesus would secure passage through the time of judgment and into the era of restoration. Paul traveled the eastern Mediterranean and argued that Jesus was the key to salvation at the end of the world for both Jews and non-Jews. Many years later, these teachings became the basis of a new religion, called Christianity.
This map shows the areas of Israel/Palestine that revolted against Rome in 66 CE (also known as 'the Great Revolt'), as well as the paths of attacks and counter-attacks that occurred during the four years of fighting. Pink areas (Galilee, Perea, and Judaea) indicate regions in which there was much support for the revolt; pink striped areas indicate regions with partial support. Red lines indicate the path of the 12th Legion; green lines indicate Vespasian's various expeditions against different parts of the country (note that he never assaults Jerusalem); blue lines indicate Titus' final move against Jerusalem, with three legions (5th, 10th, and 15th) who joined the 12th legion and numerous other auxiliary forces.
The Hellenistic Kingdoms after 198 BCE: Map
This map shows the divisions of the Hellenistic kingdoms after the Battle of Paneas in 198 BCE. After this point, the land of Israel/Palestine was controlled by the Seleucids. The Ptolemiac Kingdom continued to occupy Egypt and North Africa.
Tell Beit Mirsim is a site in southern Israel, about 13 miles southwest of Hebron. Albright excavated this site on multiple occasions in the 1920s and 30s. He is shown at the top of the picture with a white hat. Local Arabs worked with Albright on these early digs.
Tel-Aviv has become today the most important economic center of Israel. Jewish immigrants began settling in the area in the 1880’s, but the city was not officially established until the early 1900’s. It is outlined in this image by the high-rise buildings in the center and north of the city, where global businesses and luxury residences are found. The southern part of the city, known as Jaffa (Yafo), is a famous ancient port city that played a vital role in the economic prosperity of the region in antiquity. The red-roofed buildings, behind the green seaside park, and east of the modern wave-breaker, show this area. Jews live primarily in the north, while Jaffa is home mostly to Arabs. In 1950 Tel-Aviv and Yafo merged into one Israeli municipality, with one elected mayor governing both; it offers a system of dual existence with mixed neighborhoods and even a mixed school, but tensions between the populations still simmer beneath the surface and erupt from time to time.
The remains of this well-preserved house temple at Tel Qasile, near the exit of the Yarkon river to the Mediterranean in central Israel, dates to the 12th-10th century BCE. Excavators recovered a number of cult objects such as incense stands and libation bowls in situ (i.e., still in place). A worshipper would have entered the temple from the east (off the top of the photo) and would first come into the open courtyard (where the altar was located). He would have then entered the temple at its northeast corner, coming into an entrance room lined with narrow benches which probably held votive statuettes or vessels. He then would have entered into the main hall through the doorway facing west. Against the west wall he would have seen the cult statue on its raised platform. Perhaps only the priests would have had access to the small treasury room behind the platform.
These pottery stands are shown in situ (as they were left in the 10th century BCE), in a shrine next to the main sanctuary. The stands held bowls, which were found with them. They were used in the temple complex for ritual offering of food to the Philistine gods. The two tall vessels were incense altars, which spread the smell of incense (which was put on the top plate) after coals were put in the hollow inside portion.
This photograph shows an underground tunnel that was part of Megiddo's water system, which was built in the 9th century BCE. Water was a precious defensive commodity - if a city had any hope of surviving a siege, they had to make sure that their inhabitants had water to drink and that their enemies did not. In order to reach the spring that fed the city from within the city walls, ancient engineers cut a 75-foot shaft equipped with a spiral staircase and then a 210-foot long horizontal underground tunnel.
This stone-lined pit is 21 feet deep and 34 feet across and was a municipal grain storage silo between ca. 780-650 BCE. There were two winding staircases that went down into it (one of which is visible on the right side of the photograph). Though no trace of a roof was found, it must have been roofed in antiquity.
Tel Megiddo: Late Bronze Age cuneiform tablet
This inscription is written in the Akkadian language that used a cuneiform (literally, 'wedge-shaped') script for letters. The earliest examples of writing from Israel/Palestine are in this script and language. This particular fragment is from Megiddo and dates to the 15th-14th centuries BCE. It records a portion of the ancient Mesopotamian legend called the Epic of Gilgamesh, which has many interesting parallels to the Hebrew Bible's story of Noah and the flood.
The earliest writing preserved from Israel/Palestine are in the form of cuneiform on clay tablets like this one. The cuneiform script and the languages that were written in it (like Akkadian) were developed in Mesopotamia. This tablet fragment preserves part of the text of the Epic of Gilgamesh, a Mesopotamian story that includes an account of the origin of the world, a worldwide flood, and a figure much like Noah from the biblical book of Genesis.
Tel Megiddo: Canaanite outdoor altar (2)
The round stone mound in this photo—a Canaanite outdoor altar—is also referred to as a 'high place'. It was built around 2,700 BCE and used up to around 1,800 BCE. A 'high place' ('bamah' in the Hebrew Bible) was a place used for worship, in part because the smell of sacrifices performed on them were more likely to catch the attention of the deity who lived in the heavens.
Tel Megiddo: Canaanite outdoor altar (1)
This aerial photograph shows a huge outdoor altar, up to 5 feet high, that was built in the Early Bronze Age (2850-2650 BCE). The altar was accessed via the steps on the left side of the photo, and excavators found pottery and bones surrounding the altar, confirming its use in the local Canaanite cult. The walls surrounding the altar of a later date, when it was part of a huge temple. The structure continued to be used until around 2,000 BCE.
This aerial photograph shows the site of ancient Megiddo, the most important city of Lower Galilee in antiquity. It sits at a major crossroads at the western end of the Jezreel Valley. Megiddo was inhabited from the Pre-pottery Neolithic period until the Persian period.
Tel Jemmeh: Persian Period Imported Greek Vase
This beautiful urn was made by a well known Greek potter and vase painter around 450 BCE. It was imported to Judah and found in the ruins of a Persian grain storage center at Tel Jemmeh. The reason that an elegant urn from Greece ended up in Judah is unknown, but likely has something to do with the fact that the Persians controlled everything east of the Aegean by this time.
The area with pillars in this photo shows the ancient ruins of a storehouse that dates to the 9th century BCE. The large rooms in the foreground date to the time of Jeroboam II (793-753 BCE). In the background is the snow-covered peak of Mt. Hermon.
This large rectangular building with its double row of pillars was a royal storehouse from the 9th century BCE. Other storehouses like it have been discovered at Megiddo and at Tel Be'er Sheva.
This photograph shows an intact shrine from inside the Holy of Holies of a small broadhouse temple (i.e., the entrance is on the broad side of the building). It dates to the 13th century BCE. The stones were all cut from basalt, a local rock. Eight standing stones, or stelae, flank the central standing stone that depicts two suppliant hands engraved with a lunar crescent and circle between and above them. To the right stands a massive stone (an orthostat), originally from the temple's porch, with a lion carved on it. To the left is a statuette of a man or god sitting on his throne, holding a cup. The excavator, Yigael Yadin, concluded that this shrine was destroyed by Joshua in the 13th century BCE.
Hazor, an ancient city and tel that sits at the southern end of the Huleh Valley in eastern upper Galilee, was one of the largest and most important cities in the region from ca 1,900 BCE until 732 BCE when it was destroyed by the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III. Intensive archaeological excavation on the tel and at its base revealed a great deal about the early history of the region.
This image shows Tel Hazor looking west. The six-chambered gate is near the center of the image. There appear to be eight chambers, but the front square sections are remains of two tower foundations, guarding the entrance. Notice where the “casemate” city walls extend to the right and left. The towers protrude past the city wall in order to flank anyone who would attack the wall directly. The roofed area in the image, to the top left, is a modern building that covers the ancient Canaanite palace/temple. Hazor was an international hub of trade in the Bronze Age, and later, during the Iron Age, turned into a fortified Israelite city. Many debates remain among historians and archaeologists about the role of Hazor in ancient Israelite history and religion.
This is an aerial image of the remains of Tel Hazor (Tell el-Qedah), an ancient city north of the Sea of Galilee, in the Hula Valley of northern Israel. At the top left of this picture, the square-like stone structures are the remains of a distinctive six-chambered gate (only half of which is shown in the picture). Such gates have three chambers on each side. The smaller square at the top of this image is the foundation of a tower. The wall extending to the right is known as a “casemate” wall. This was a hollow wall that could be filled with weapons or supplies for the city. Hazor was one of the most important pre-Israelite fortified cities of the Bronze Age. The site was later inhabited by the Israelites during the reign of King Solomon.
All three of these vessels can be dated to the late 6th or early 5th century BCE, during the first decades of Persian control of Palestine. However, pottery forms do not change simply because the political control does. As a result, these forms look very much like those from the Iron II period. That said, pottery forms do change over time, so the lamp in this photograph (in the center) is flatter, wider, and thinner-walled than those found 100 years earlier (in the Iron II period), and the juglet on the left is somewhat trimmer in profile than its Iron II counterparts.
This finely worked sculpture of a bearded man wearing a sort of a head cover is typical of the high-quality Hellenistic finds from the port city of Dor.
These three figurines of pregnant women wearing Egyptian wigs and holding one hand on their stomachs are typical of figurines found at other Phoenician sites in Lebanon, Cyprus, and Israel in the Persian period. Scholars usually assume that they were votive offerings to a goddess. Some similar figurines from a 4th century BCE shipwreck at Shave Zion, on the northern coast of Israel, bore the symbol of the Phoenician goddess Tanit.
This photograph shows one of the main streets of the 3rd century BCE city of Dor. This phase of the city was built under King Ptolemy II (285-246 BCE) on a Hippodamian plan (i.e., a checkerboard pattern of city blocks) and had an advanced sewage system (note the drain cutting across the street at an angle in the center of the picture) and was supplied by an aqueduct. Shops opened into the street on both sides, and apartments would have stood above the shops.
This bone pendant is a typical depiction of the god Bes, an Egyptian god who protected pregnant women. It would have been the central ornament on a necklace.
The excavations at Tel Dor, on the coast of Israel between Tel Aviv and Haifa, are barely visibly on the rocky promontory in the low center of this photograph. Dor was one of the Phoenician harbors in antiquity, first settled in the 15th century BCE and inhabited well into the Roman period. It was especially prominent as a port city of maritime trade in the Persian and Hellenistic periods.
This photo shows the fully preserved arched gateway at Tel Dan, which was made of mud bricks and is the first such structure found intact in Israel. In the Early Bronze Age, sun-dried mud bricks began to replace the stones that had been used for city walls and towers, perhaps because they could be erected more quickly and raised higher than boulder walls.
This view of Tel Beit Shemesh (the archaeological ruins in the foreground), an Israelite town during the Iron Age, gives a feel of the transition from the Coastal plain to the Central Hill. The peaks of the Central Hill, running from north to south (left to right), are seen rising in background. This region between the hills and the seashore plains (which are not seen the photograph) is called the Shephelah.